lt-3i 


H^f^ 


.i^:) 


1?^ 


RECOMMENDATIONS. 


Fr^om    W.  A.  Duer,  LL.D.,   President  of  Columbia    College^ 
JVew  York. 

At  the  request  of  Mr.  J.  Orville  Taylor,  I  have  examined  his 
work  entitled  <'  The  District  School,"  and  am  of  opinion  that,  both 
from  its  design  and  execution,  it  well  deserves  the  patronage  of  the 
public,  and  the  special  notice  and  perusal  of  those  engaged  or  in- 
terested in  promoting  general  education. 

W.  A.  DUER. 

Columbia  College,  ^ 

New  York,  Sept.  25th,  1834. 5 


From  Charles  King,  Esq.,  Editor  of^*  The  JVew  York  American^ 

Having  read  the  sheets  of  the  above  work,  I  concur  fully  in  what 
is  said  of  it  by  President  Duer. 

Charles  Kiiro. 


From  the  Right  Reverend  Bishop  Onderdonk,  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  State  ofJVew  York. 

Mr.  Taylor  has  done  me  the  favour  of  putting  into  my  hands  a 
copy  of  his  "  District  School."  It  being,  however,  at  a  period  of 
more  than  ordinary  pressure  of  official  duty,  I  have  been  able  to 
give  it  only  a  hasty  and  partial  perusal.  But  I  have  been  enabled 
to  get  such  an  insight  into  the  nature  and  plan  of  the  work  as  to 
satisfy  me  of  its  great  value,  and  the  probability  of  its  being  exten- 
sively useful  to  the  important  cause  of  general  education.  I  there- 
fore cheerfully  concur  in  the  above  recommendations. 

Bexjamix  T.  Ondeudonk. 
1  i  ^ 


]UBCOMM£NDATIONS. 


From  EUphalet  A  or/,  D.D.  LL.D.,  President  of  Union  College, 
Schenectady. 

I  know  of  no  work  ko  much  wanted  as  the  one  Mr.  Taylor  has 
now  furniiihed ;  and  from  its  deaign  I  think  it  admirably  fitted  to 
improve  ilemontary  education. 

ELirUALXT    NOTT. 


/Vom  /.  M.  Mathewt,  D.D.,  Chancellor  of  the  JWw  York 
Univertittf. 

Mr.  Taylor's  work  on  District  Schools  contains  much  that  should 
be  read  and  pandered  by  parenla  and  leachers.  It  is  written  in  a 
dear,  tigorous  style,  is  well  ananged,  and  may  be  considered  a 
▼aluable  anjuiaition  to  the  caoae  of  elementary  education. 

J.  M.  Matuews. 


/Vtai  tniUam  L,  Stone,  />y.,  Editor  of  the  ''Commercial 
^Idvertiter" 

After  an  examination  of  the  *'  District  School,'*  I  fully  and  cheer- 
fully concur  in  the  commendations  bestowed  above. 

William  L.  Stohx. 


Prom  .Yathan  Bangt,  D.D^  Editor  of  in-       Lu^  f  ./<</*  ..idvo- 
cate:'  Uc. 

I  have  looked  over  Mr.  Taylor's  book  on  the  importance  of  a 
well-digested  system  of  elementary  education.  I  am  much  pleased 
with  his  general  plan,  and  the  observations  on  the  specific  duties, 
qualifications,  and  responsibilities  of  parents,  teachers,  and  all  who 
have  the  care  of  children  and  youth.  I  cannot,  therefore,  but  hope, 
that  his  book  may  have  an  extensive  circulation  and  be  attentively 
read  by  all  classes  of  our  fellow-citizens,  and  more  especially  that 
his  good  design  and  plan  of  instruction  may  be  particularly  exem- 
plified in  every  section  of  our  growing  republic. 

N.  Babob. 

New  York,  Sept,  26th,  1834. 


RECOMMENDATIONS.  Ill 

From  Reverend  William  Parlntuon,  ^«9f.,  Peutor  of  the  Firtt 
Baptitt  Church,  jVew  York. 

Having  long  rcgrelted  the  evident  defects  in  the  usual  manage- 
ment of  our  common  schools,  I  have  been  highly  gratified  in  look- 
ing over,  though  but  hastily,  the  Ahcots  of  a  l>ook  now  in  the  press, 
entitled  "District  School,"  by  J.  Orvillc  Taylor.  In  this  l>ot>k.  the 
defects  alluded  to,  with  their  causes  and  consequences,  are  justly 
brought  to  view,  and  the  requisite  changes,  with  their  practicability 
and  advantages,  arc  explicitly  stated  and  happily  illustrated.  80 
far,  therefore,  as  I  have  had  opjwrtunity  to  examine  Mr.  Taylor's 
"District  School,"  I  cheerfully  recommend  it  to  the  general  read- 
ing and  patronage  of  the  .\inerican  public,  as  a  well-written  work, 
and  especially,  to  the  careful  attention  of  all  parents,  and  of  all 
teachers  and  trustees  of  schools,  as,  to  them,  peculiarly  interesting 
and  needful. 

WlLLIAX    PaBKIHSOJT. 

New  York,  Oct  2d,  1834. 


From  William  M.  Price,  Etq^  U.  S.  Dittrict  ,9ttorney. 

Mr.  Taylor's  <«  District  Sthool"  is  a  book  well  adapted  to  the 
promotion  of  the  desirable  object  which  the  writer  has  in  view. 
I  have  great  pleasure  in  commending  this  work  to  pablic  pft- 
tronage. 

WiLLiix  M.  Pkici. 

New-York,  Oct.  Sth,  i^.vi. 


J.Orville  i  avi'ir  n:is  rnuh'rfd  the  cause  (»i  rnuraiiori  an  invaiiia- 
kle  service,  by  his  work  entitled  '•  The  District  School.'*  His 
doctrines  are  sound,  and  with  a  very  few  exceptions,  in  my  opinion, 
the  means  suggested  for  carrying  them  into  operation,  must  find 
favour  with  all  reflecting  minds.  If  our  fellow-citirens  universally 
regard,  and  put  in  practice  the  lessons  ho  has  taught  with  such 
simplicity  and  force,  they  will  lay  deep  and  sure  the  foundations 
of  private  happines.4,  i»>'l    pnMi--  c^^'iiriiv.     I   would  reiq)ectAilly 


rV  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

commend  the  author,  and  his  labours  in  this  field  of  usefulness,  to 
the  notice  of  the  governor,  and  the  members  of  the  legislature  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Roberts  Vaux. 
Philadelphia,  2d  mo.  5,  1835. 


If  these  principles  be  correct, — as  every  good  citizen  must  admit 
they  are, — then  is  this  book,  by  Mr.  J.  O.  Taylor,  of  vast  importance 
to  our  community.  Its  aim  and  design  arc  to  further  the  progress 
of  national  education,  on  the  best  principles,  and  in  the  best  practi- 
cal manner.  Its  name.  The  District  School,  is  humble  and  un- 
assuming. But  it  is  peculiarly  attractive.  It  is  by  the  District 
School  that  the  great  mass  of  the  people  is  to  be  illumined.  Only 
let  parents,  teachers,  and  our  legislators  study  this  book,  as  it  truly 
deserves  to  be  studied,  and  a  new  impulse  cannot  fail  to  be  given 
to  our  state  and  national  education.  And,  thence,  our  republic 
will  derive  fresh  nourishment,  and  strength,  from  the  superior  edu- 
cation of  the  rising  generation. 

The  object,  therefore,  of  Mr.  Taylor's  book  cannot  be  sufficiently 
applauded.  And  we  do  not  hesitate  emphatically  to  say,  that  he 
has  done  ample  justice  to  it.  It  exhibits  a  master's  view  of  the 
best  mode  of  attaining  the  end  proposed  by  our  schools ;  and  a  rich 
experience  in  the  whole  matter  ;  and  it  is  expressed  in  a  clear  and 
forcible  style.  We  therefore  beg  leave  earnestly  to  recommend  his 
book  to  every  parent,  to  every  teacher,  and  to  every  legislator  and 
patriot  who  study  the  best  interests  of  our  common  country. 

William  C.  Bhownlee,  D.D. 


"In  teachers'  seminaries,  Taylor's  'District  School'  should  be 
used  as  a  reading-book,  for  the  double  purpose  of  improvement  in 
reading  the  English  language,  and  for  becoming  familiar  with  the 
most  improved  mode  of  instruction,  and  the  best  rules  of  school 
government." — Report  of  a  Committee  of  the  Regents  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  State  of  JSTctv  York  on  the  Education  of  Common 
School  Teachers,  Mbant/,  1835. 


DECOMMENDATIONS.  V 

Paris,  Dec.  30,  1834. 

Dear  Sir, — I  have  just  finished  a  perusal  of  the  excellent  book — 
"The  l)istrict  School" — you  have  had  the  kindness  to  send  to  me. 
Its  subject  is  one  of  the  very  highest  importance ;  and  you  have 
treated  it  in  a  manner  that  evinces  a  close  observation  of  the  prac- 
tice, as  well  as  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  theory 
on  which  it  is  founded :  and  your  work  is  one  of  those  which  I 
think  most  calculated  to  produce  extensive  and  permanent  good. 

Edward  Livixgstox, 

Letter  to  the  author.  Minister  to  France. 


RECOMMENDATIONS  OF  THE  PRESS. 

"We  cannot  bestow  higher  praise  upon  the  District  School, 
than  by  expressing  the  opinion  that  the  cause  of  educ^Uion  would 
be  greatly  promoted  by  its  general  diffusion,  and  that  it  ought  to 
be  in  the  hands  of  every  parent  and  teacher  in  this  wide  republic. 
*  *  *  *  We  have  been  so  copious  in  our  extracts,  that  our  readers 
are  now  prepared  to  form  their  own  judgment  of  the  very  clever 
and  useful  work  under  consideration.  It  is  with  unfeigned  plea- 
sure that  we  learn  from  the  preface,  that  to  the  cause  of  education 
our  author  has  consecrated  his  talents,  his  attainments,  and  his 
future  life.  The  cause  has  gained  much  in  acquiring  so  intelligent, 
skilful,  and  practical  an  advocate." — Monthly  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, Princeton. 

"  We  have  looked  over  this  volume  with  uncommon  interest. 
It  is  full  of  good  thoughts  and  useful  suggestions,  on  the  importance 
of  common  schools,  to  a  country  like  ours ;  on  the  defects  which 
abound  in  them,  and  their  sources ;  and  on  the  means  of  improving 
and  elevating  them.  Nor  is  it  the  least  commendation  of  the  work, 
that  it  breathes  throughout  a  truly  Christian  spirit.  The  style  is 
simple,  intelligible,  and  forcible." — American  Annals  of  Education 
and  histrtiction,  Boston. 


VI  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

"  The  *  District  School'  is  a  volume  of  great  value,  both  in  its 
design  and  execution ;  and  we  sincerely  commend  this  volume  to 

all  who  desire  that  national  education  should  with  us  be  a  truth, 

» 

and  not  a  mere  statutory  provision,  rendered  nugatory,  if  not  mis- 
chievous, by  the  manner  in  which  it  is  executed." — JS'ew  York 
Jimericanf  Sept.  27. 

"  This  admirable  volume,  of  which  we  have  spoken  before  more 
than  once,  is  now  out,  and  we  again  commend  it  to  general  circu- 
lation."—JWw  York  Jlmerican,  Oct.  18,  1834. 

"  One  of  the  most  important  works  that  have  come  from  the 
press  is  the  duodecimo  (336  pages)  entitled  the  *  District  School,' 
by  J.  Orville  Taylor.  The  improvement  of  elementary  education 
is  the  purpose  of  the  author,  and  he  has  followed  it  out  in  all  the 
proper  details,  with  the  ability  of  an  intelligent  and  most  zealous 
observer." — The  JVational  Gazette  and  Literary  Register. 

"  It  is  with  sincere  pleasure  that  we  recommend  the  perusal  of 
Mr.  Taylor's  book  to  parents,  teachers,  and  especially  to  the  trus- 
tees and  superintendents  of  our  schools.  Every  citizen  should  read 
it  who  values  either  the  welfare  of  his  own  offspring,  or  the  salva- 
tion of  the  republic." — JVew  York  Observer. 

"  The  object  of  the  *  District  School'  is  most  important — to  raise 
the  character  of  the  district  school  by  explaining  the  difficult  but 
most  useful  and  honourable  duties  of  the  schoolmaster,  and  the 
relative  responsibilities  of  teachers,  pupils,  and  parents.  The 
nature  and  bearings  of  moral  education  form  a  prominent  feature 
in  the  work.  Such  a  volume  has  been  long  needed." — The 
Churchman. 

"  The  <  District  Scliool'  that  we  mentionea  the  other  day  is  an 
admirable  work  on  elementary  education,  and  should  be  read  by 
every  parent  and  teacher  in  the  Union." — Albany  Daily  Adver- 
tiser. 

«  The  *  District  School,'  by  J  Orville  Taylor.— This  is  an  in- 
structive work,  and  a  delightful  one,  too.     The  author  has  a  high 


RECOMMENDATIONS.  Vll 

sense  of  the  ludicrous,  a  keen  eye  for  defects  ;  and  he  has  observed 
so  closely,  and  described  so  faithfully,  that  he  has  not  only  made 
an  eminently  useful  book,  but  one  full  of  amusement.  The  style 
is  pure  and  perspicuous,  and  the  thought  always  luminous,  and 
frequently  eloquent.  *  *  *  With  the  most  useful  instructions,  the 
author  constantly  unites  either  amusement  of  anecdote  or  the  charm 
of  poetical  style  and  thought." — The  JVew  York  JSTirror. 

"  The  style  of  the  '  District  School'  is  simple,  intelligible,  appro- 
priate, correct,  and  forcible ;  and  the  author  displays  much  ac- 
quaintance with  the  condition  of  common  education.  We  regard 
the  general  circulation  of  this  work  as  highly  desirable,  for  it  will 
carry  to  every  reader  a  large  amount  of  important  truths,  many 
sound  views  of  education,  and  an  incitement  to  exertion  in  its  pro- 
motion, which  must  produce  some  good  effects." — J\'ew  York 
Daily  Advertiser. 

"  No  work  which  we  have  seen  appears  to  oe  so  well  calculated 
for  extensive  effect  on  our  schools ;  and  it  will  be  a  public  benefit 
to  every  state  in  the  Union,  if  it  is  widely  diffused  and  read  in  every 
town  and  village." — Daily  Advertiser. 

"  We  ask  that  this  book,  by  Mr.  Taylor,  may  be  read  by  parents 
— first,  carefully  read,  and  well  digested ;  and  secondly,  we  recom- 
mend that  every  man  and  woman  in  this  city  may  buy  a  copy 
thereof,  and  study  it  well.  It  is  a  duty  that  parents  and  teachers 
owe  children  and  society." — The  United  States  Gazette. 

"  The  '  District  School.' — We  most  cheerfully  recommend  this 
book  to  our  readers.  It  treats  on  the  subject  of  elementary  in- 
struction, such  as  should  be  imparted  in  our  common  schools.  It 
comes  recommended  by  President  Duer,  and  other  distinguished 
individuals ;  but  it  is  its  own  best  recommendation,  as  it  treats  an 
important  and  deeply  interesting  subject  with  much  ability,  in  a 
plain  and  forcible  style." — Christian  Advocate  and  Journal. 

"  Among  all  the  books,  essays,  and  pamphlets  that  have  recently 
appeared  on  this  most  important  subject,  we  have  seen  none  that 
appears  to  us  to  combine  so  much  of  good  common  sense  with  true 


Vlll  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

philosophy.  The  work  is  evidently  the  result  of  sound  sense,  much 
experience,  and  careful  thought,  and  ought  to  be  seriously  read  and 
studied  by  every  parent  and  teacher  throughout  the  Union." — 
Baptist  Repository. 

"  The  *  District  School.' — In  this  work  Mr.  Taylor  displays  great 
and  accurate  knowledge,  and  throws  out  a  multitude  of  useful  and 
judicious  suggestions,  in  language  singularly  clear,  succinct,  and  in- 
telligible. His  book  is  calculated  to  do  much  good,  and  we  should 
rejoice  to  know  that  it  was  extensively  read  and  its  hints  universally 
adopted." — The  AVw  York  Times. 

"  We  perceive  that  Mr.  Taylor's  work  comes  before  the  world 
under  the  auspices  of  high  authority,  with  a  list  of  names  appended 
which  justify  a  most  exalted  opinion  of  its  merit  and  capacity  for 
usefulness,  and  a  testimonial  of  still  greater  weight,  if  possible,  in 
a  Preface,  written  by  one  whose  ability  to  judge  there  can  be  no 
question,  and  whose  high  character  is  such,  that  the  fact  of  his 
taking  so  much  interest  in  the  work  is  both  a  high  compliment 
and  the  best  certificate  of  excellence." — JVew  York  Gazette  and 
General  Advertiser. 


"  The  '  District  School'  is  addressed  to  parents,  teachers,  and 
legislators.  The  work  is  evidently  the  result  of  experience  and 
close  observation,  and  contains  many  valuable  hints  on  the  subject 
of  which  it  treats,  which  are  worthy  of  the  attention  of  all  in 
any  way  connected  with  the  business  or  having  the  direction  of 
the  system  of  common  school  education.  It  is  highly  recom- 
mended, and  can  scarcely  fail  to  command  attention." — Daily  Al- 
bany Argus. 

"  The  writer  of  tne  '  District  School'  appears  to  possess  a  full 
knowledge  of  the  important  subject  of  education ;  and  his  remarks 
on  the  duties  of  parents,  the  qualification  of  teachers,  school-disci- 
pline, the  advantages  of  knowledge,  &c.,  are  distinguished  by  sound 
sense  and  weighty  arguments.  The  style  is  pure  and  perspicuous, 
and  the  reasonings  of  the  author  eloquent  and  instructive." — Sa- 
turday Evening  I*ost. 


RECOMMENDATIONS.  IX 

"  The  highest  praise  is  due  to  Mr.  Taylor  for  the  clearness  and 
simplicity  of  his  statements  and  reasonings :  there  is  no  parade  of 
learning,  no  assumption  of  profundity ;  but  simply  a  plain  and 
perfectly  intelligible  exposition  of  the  thoughts  and  conclusions  of 
a  clear-headed  man,  who  has  taken  pains  to  acquire  knowledge  of 
his  subject." — Morning  Courier  and  JVew  York  Enquirer. 

"  We  have  looked  into  this  volume  with  no  ordinary  interest. 
It  enters  into  the  subject  of  practical  education  with  the  spirit 
and  intelligence  of  one  deeply  solicitous  for  the  welfare  of  the 
rising  generation.  Whatever  can  add  to  their  dignity,  as  moral 
and  social  beings,  and  to  the  happiness  of  their  country,  is  re- 
garded by  the  author  as  claiming  the  attention  of  all  those  who 
have  the  direction  of  elementary  instruction.  His  book  appears 
to  be  the  issue  of  a  heartfelt  concern  for  the  improvement  of  our 
schools;  and  from  the  practical  acquaintance  which  he  manifests, 
and  the  good  feeling  in  which  he  writes,  his  volume,  we  think, 
should  be  in  the  library  of  every  family  where  there  are  children 
to  be  educated,  and  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher." — Providence 
Journal. 

"  The  subject  ably  discussed  in  the  *  District  School'  is  one  of 
great  importance  to  all — to  parents,  to  children,  to  citizens  as 
members  of  the  community,  and  to  the  interest  and  stability  of  our 
republican  government  and  institutions." — Southern  Religious 
Telegraph. 

"  The  *  District  School.' — The  topics  treated  of  in  this  volume 
are  of  vital  importance;  the  style  in  which  they  are  treated  is 
familiar,  and  the  book  should  be  thoroughly  examined  by  parents, 
teachers,  and  all  who  are  interested  in  the  cause  of  freedom  and 
education." — Daily  Atlas. 

"  This  is  a  work  which  recommends  itself,  and  should  be  found 
in  the  hands  of  every  person  interested  in  the  education  of  youth. 
The  writer  has  indulged  in  no  mysterious,  metaphysical  jargon. 
He  has  not  committed  the  too  common  fault  of  stringing  together 
words  without  meaning,  nor  attempted  to  lead  the  mind  into  the 


X  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

visionary  and  boundless  expanse  of  dreamy  speculation ;  nor  yet, 
to  talk  learned  nonsense  to  mystify  a  subject,  requiring  to  be 
illustrated  by  plain  common  sense.  Though  strictly  philosophi- 
cal, the  positions  assumed  by  Mr.  Taylor  are  founded  on  the 
plainest  facts,  the  correctness  of  which  every  intelligent  mind  will 
acknowledge  without  hesitation ;  and  the  arguments  by  which 
they  are  sustained,  and  the  conclusions  arrived  at,  are  so  perfectly 
simple  as  not  be  mistaken,  and  so  extremely  forcible  as  to  defy 
contradiction.  The  '  District  School'  is  precisely  what  it  pur- 
ports to  be.  It  embraces  every  thing  connected  with  the  subject. 
It  portrays  the  mind  and  character  of  a  parent  as  it  should  be. 
It  points  out  the  mode  of  treatment  indispensable,  in  order  to 
make  the  infant  mind  the  miniature  resemblance  of  the  well-cul- 
tivated and  virtuous  intellect  of  maturer  years.  It  delineates  the 
character  and  qualifications  of  the  good  teacher,  and  describes  the 
manner  in  which  he  may  rear  up  good  scholars,  and  furnish 
society  with  good  members.  It  also  tells  you  of  the  opposite 
character,  teaches  you  how  to  know  him,  and  gives  you  the  all- 
important  reasons  why  you  should  avoid  him.  Nor  is  it  the  least 
important  part  of  this  work,  that  it  imparts  correct  ideas  of  what 
should  be  the  qualifications  of  school-committees,  of  the  nature 
and  extent  of  their  important  duties,  of  the  high  responsibility 
which  rests  upon  them,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  should 
discharge  their  trust.  Finally,  the  '  District  School'  is  a  com- 
plete manual  for  parents,  teachers,  and  school-committees ;  and 
we  hail  it  as  a  work  well  calculated  to  produce  a  most  beneficial 
result  in  the  work  of  education,  so  highly  essential  to  the  peace 
and  happiness  of  our  country,  and  the  safety  of  her  constitution." — 
I*rovidence  Republican  Herald. 


The  undersigned  have  examined,  with  peculiar  satisfaction,  a 
work  entitled  "  The  District  School,  by  J,  Orville  Taylor."  The 
Work  is  not  restricted  to  common  schools,  but  treats  of  education 
upon  a  scale,  which  renders  it  equally  instructive  to  all  classes  of 
citizens ;  and  in  our  opinion  a  most  desirable  aid  to  all  who  are 
charged  in  any  way  with  the  instruction  of  the  young.  We  are 
persuaded  that  the  perusal  of  this  treatise  will  work  a  reform  in  the 
prevailing  systems  of  education.     With  this  impression,  we  desire 


RECOMMENDATIONS.  XI 

to  see  it  in  the  hands  of  every  person,  \?vho  feels  either  a  Christian 
or  philanthropic  interest  in  the  rising  generation. 

Signed, 

E.  W.  Baldwin,  Pastor  of  Seventh  Presbyterian  Church, 
Geo.  Benedict,  Pastor  of  the  Union  Baptist  Church, 
James  Milnoh,  D.D.,  Rector  of  St.  George's  Church, 
Gardiner  Spring,  D.  D.,  Pastor  of  Brick  Presbyterian  Churchj 
John  N.  McLeod,  Pastor  of  the  Second  Asso.  Ref.  Presbyterian 

Church, 
H.  G.  Ludlow,  Pastor  of  Eighth  Presbyterian  Church, 
Wx.  R.  Williams,  Pastor  of  St.  Philip's  Church. 
Lot  Jones,  Rector  of  Church  of  Epiphany, 
Thomas  De  Witt,  Pastor  of  Dutch  Reformed  Church, 
J.  F.  ScHROEDER,  Rcctor  of  Trinity  Church, 
Charles  G.  Somers,  Pastor  of  South  Baptist  Church, 
John  Woodbridge,  Pastor  of  Bowery  Presbyterian  Church, 
Jacob  Broduead,  D.  D.,  Pastor  of  Broome-st.  Dutch  Reformed 

Church, 
D.  Lansing,  D.  D.,  Pastor  of  Free  Third  Presbyterian  Church, 
Theodore  Wright,  Pastor  of  African  Church, 
Erskine  Mason,  Pastor  of  Bleccker-st.  Presbyterian  Church, 
Daniel  Devinne,  Methodist  Episcopal, 
L.  P.  Batard,  Rector  of  St.  Clement's  Church, 
T.  McElroi,  Pastor  of  Scotch  Presbyterian  Church, 
Thomas  Ttell,  D.  D.,  Rector  of  Christ  Church, 
T.  House  Taylor,  Rector  of  Grace  Church, 
Gideon  Lee,  Ex-Mayor  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
Lambert  Sutdam,  Alderman, 
Jeremiah  Vanrenssellaer,  M.  D., 
Henry  J.  Anderson,  Professor  in  Columbia  College. 


TIIE 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL; 


OR, 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


BY  J.  ORVILLE  TAYLOR, 

PROFESSOR   OF  POPULAR  EDUCATION   IN  THE  NEW   YORK   UMVERSITY 


7""'  '  '    ' 
L 
Elementary  schools  bestow  and  sustain  the  nation's  liberty. 


"The  virtue  of  mankind,  and  the  knotcledge  which  invigorates  that  virtue 
and  renders  it  more  surely  useful,  are  the  greatest  objects  which  benevo- 
lence can  have  in  view."  Dr.  Brown, 


iilE    THIRD    EDITION. 

PHILADELPHIA  : 
CAREY,  LEA,  AND  BLANCIJARD. 

183  5. 


NiBW  YpEk,,Qct..  1st,  a 834. 
To  JoHif  DuER,  Esa.  ,'••,•*  .^  ^  *,*.  *  .'*. 

Sir, 
Permit  me  to  submit  to  your  consideration  the  printed  sheets  of 
a  work,  which  contains  the  results  of  some  personal  examination 
into  our  elementary  schools.  Should  the  work  meet  your  approba- 
tion, suffer  me  to  request  you  to  confer  a  favour  on  the  cause  of 
general  education,  by  contributing  to  the  "  District  School"  a  short 
preface.     Yours  with  high  regard, 

J.  Orville  Taylor. 


Sir, — I  have  read  your  book  with  great  pleasure ;  if  the  enclosed 
remarks  will  meet  your  views,  they  are  at  your  service. 
Yours  with  esteem, 

loHN    DuER. 


PREFACE. 

It  is  to  parents,  teachers,  and  legislators,  that  this 
work  is  addressed ;  and  on  the  minds  of  those  who 
will  read  it  with  the  necessary  attention  it  cannot 
fail  to  make  a  most  salutary  impression.  The  title 
is  modest  and  unpretending ;  the  style,  though  emi- 
nently clear  and  forcible,  plain  and  unlaboured  ;  and 
the  subjects  of  which  it  treats,  and  well  and  ably 
treats,  are  of  the  very  highest  importance, — far 
more  inlportant  than  the  topics  which  are  usually 
discussed   in   our  halls  of  legislation,   and  which, 

dignified  by  the  eloquence  of  statesmen,  and  exag- 
A  2  5 


PREFACE. 


gerated' by,'.the  arts.  .o.f  popular  declaimers,  have 
sometime's  'fixed  th^  a'ttcrUlaii,  and  agitated  the  pas- 
sions//?f;th'^  whole' nit)iTin,tur^;ity. . 

Tlie '  rejections  of  the*  ?iuthor  are  evidently  the 
combined  result  of  learning,  experience,  and  exten- 
sive and  accurate  observation  ;  and  he  writes  with 
that  earnest  simplicity  which  is  the  never-failing 
proof  of  sincerity,  and  which,  it  may  be  hoped,  will 
transfer  to  the  minds  of  his  readers  a  portion  of  his 
own  generous  and  disinterested  zeal, — his  zeal  in  the 
cause  of  public  improvement  and  general  happiness, 
— the  cause  to  which  he  has  consecrated  his  talents, 
his  attainments,  and  his  future  life. 

Entertaining  this  sense  of  the  value  of  his  work, 
I  have  felt  it  a  duty  to  comply  with  the  request  of 
the  author  by  contributing  this  brief  preface ;  nor 
have  I  been  unwilling,  I  confess,  to  connect  my 
name  with  a  publication  which,  should  its  circulation 
be  as  extensive  as  it  may,  and  ought  to  be,  will  mark 
an  era  in  the  history  of  public  instruction. 

To  enforce  the  duty  and  necessity  of  extending 
to  all  the  benefits  of  education,  in  the  full  and  true 
sense  of  the  term, — to  expose  the  defects  of  the 
system  of  primary  instruction  which  now  prevails, — 
and  to  suggest  some  of  the  appropriate  remedies, 
is  the  design  of  the  work.  On  some  of  the  subor- 
dinate topics  of  discussion  differences  of  opinion  may, 
and  will  exist ;  but  all  who  are  competent  to  judge, 
and  will  give  their  due  attention  to  the  facts  which 
this  book  discloses,  must  unite  in  the  conclusion, 
that  our  present  system  of  popular  education  is  radi- 
cally defective. 


PREFACE. 


It  is  on  this  point  chiefly  that  the  public  mind 
requires  to  be  disabused ;  it  is  in  relation  to  this  that 
there  exists — I  speak  especially  of  this  state — a  very 
general  delusion.  We  are  told  that  under  the  foster- 
ing patronage  of  the  government,  more  than  half  a 
million  of  children  are  taught  in  our  common  schools, 
— our  pride,  as  citizens  of  the  Empire  State,  is  grati- 
fied, and  we  content  ourselves  with  the  general  state- 
ment, omitting  to  inquire  into  the  character  and 
value  of  the  instruction  which  is  thus  imparted. 

We  know  not,  for  we  care  not  to  know,  that  it  is 
in  truth  so  imperfect  and  scanty  as  hardly  to  deserve 
the  name  even  of  elementary, — that  it  is  unconnected 
with  any  thing  resembling  moral  discipline  or  the 
formation  of  character, — that  the  teachers,  inex- 
perienced, transitory,  snatched  up  for  the  occasion, 
are  paid  by  salaries  which  hardly  exceed  the  wages 
of  the  menial  servant  or  the  common  labourer, — 
and  that,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  ignorant  and 
disqualified,  they  are  perhaps  even  overpaid  by  the 
pittance  which  they  receive. 

Yet  it  is  in  such  schools  and  by  such  instructers 
that  thirty-eight  out  of  forty  of  the  children  of  the 
nation  are,  as  we  phrase  it,  educated.  We  have 
lived  in  a  pleasing  delusion  ;  but  it  is  time  we  should 
awake.  It  is  time  that  we  should  cease  to  boast  of 
the  superior  intelligence  of  the  American  people,  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  population  of  the  Old 
World  ;  we  must  no  longer  refer  to  our  common 
schools  as  furnishing  at  once  the  evidence  and  ex- 
planation of  the  asserted  fact  It  cannot  be  con- 
cealed, and  ought  not  to  be  denied,  that  under  one 


8  PREFACE. 

of  the  most  arbitrary  governments  of  Europe,  (des- 
potic in  its  form,  but  in  its  present  administration 
most  enlightened  and  paternal,)  the  children  of  all, 
even  of  the  meanest  peasant  in  the  kingdom,  are 
receiving,  in  their  village  and  parish  schools,  more 
varied  and  solid,  and  in  every  sense,  valuable  in- 
struction, than  any  of  our  schools,  I  had  almost  said 
academies,  are  accustomed  or  competent  to  furnish  ! 
The  fact  is  certain :  what  reflections  must  it  suggest 
to  the  minds  of  Americans  who  truly  honour  and 
love  their  country  and  its  institutions  !* 

It  is  to  parents  and  teachers,  as  already  stated, 
that  the  exhortations  of  the  author  are  principally 
directed,  and  it  is  from  their  voluntary  exertions 
that  he  expects  that  reform,  the  necessity  of  which 
he  has  so  clearly  established.  Looking  to  the 
models  of  Germany  and  France,  no  "  system  of 
public  instruction"  has  yet  been  organized  in  any  of 
the  states,  and  in  none  has  the  appropriate  work  of 
legislation  been  more  than  commenced. 

I  do  not  hesitate  to  avow  the  belief,  that  without 
regulations  far  more  extensive  than  have  yet  been 
introduced, — a  control  far  more  enlightened  and 
constant  than  has  yet  been  exercised, — and  fiscal  aid 
far  more  ample  than  has  yet  been  afforded,  it  is  vain 

*  The  admirable  report  of  M.  Cousin  to  the  French  govern- 
ment, "  On  the  State  of  Public  Instruction  in  Prussia,"  the 
publication  of  which  has  excited  so  lively  an  interest  in  Europe 
as  well  as  in  France,  has  been  lately  translated  by  Mrs.  Austin, 
the  authoress  of  the  very  best  translation  in  the  English  lan- 
guage,— that  of  "The  Tour  of  a  German  Prince."  This  re- 
port, together  with  the  admirable  preface  of  Mrs.  Austin,  ought 
without  delay  to  be  republished  in  this  country. 


PREFACE. 


to  expect  that  the  character  of  our  common  schools 
can  be  truly  and  permanently  improved.  It  is  con- 
ceded by  all  that  nothing  can  be  done  without  com- 
petent teachers,  and  such  teachers,  in  the  number 
and  of  the  qualifications  required,  we  can  never  have, 
unless  they  are  properly  trained,  and  properly  ex- 
amined, and  watched,  and  controlled,  and,  above  all, 
properly  rewarded. 

Neither  the  districts,  nor  the  towns,  generally 
speaking,  are  willing  or  even  able  to  select  or  reward 
such  teachers,  and  still  less  to  prepare  them  for  their 
functions,  and  direct  them  in  their  labours.  If  good 
is  to  be  done,  we  must  bring  our  minds  as  soon  as 
possible  to  the  confession  of  the  truth,  that  the  edu- 
cation of  the  people,  to  be  effectual,  must  here  as 
elsewhere,  to  a  great  extent,  be  the  work  of  the 
state ;  and  that  an  expense,  of  which  all  should  feel 
the  necessity,  and  all  will  share  the  benefit,  must,  in 
a  just  proportion,  be  borne  by  all. 

It  is  true  that  the  public  mind  must  be  prepared 
for  legislative  action,  and  the  belief  of  the  value  of 
that  education  which  alone  merits  the  name,  must 
be  far  more  pervading  and  serious  than  it  now 
is,  before  legislatures  will  have  either  the  inclina- 
tion or  the  courage  to  act. 

The  dissemination  of  this  book,  and  of  the  truths 
which  it  contains,  will  tend  thus  to  prepare  the 
public  mind,  to  produce  the  right  state  of  feeling 
and  of  thought ;  for  assuredly  it  will  not  be  read  in 
vain  by  parents  who  are  such  in  heart  and  in  con- 
science, not  in  name  merely. 

There  are  some  truths  which  it  may  be  painful  to 


10  PREFACE. 

confess,  yet  are  most  necessary  to  be  known.  To 
the  reflecting  and  the  candid  it  will  not  seem  ex- 
travagant to  say  that  the  chief  source  of  the  evils, 
the  disorders,  the  crimes  which  afflict  society,  is  to 
be  found  in  the  heartless  indifference  of  the  higher 
classes,  the  rich,  the  educated,  the  refined,  towards 
the  comfort  and  well-being  of  those  they  term  or 
deem  their  inferiors,  and  their  consequent  neglect 
of  the  intellectual  and  moral  improvement  of  those 
who  always  have  been,  and  would  seem  by  the  order 
of  Providence,  always  must  be,  the  most  numerous 
class — those  who  depend  on  their  daily  labour  for 
their  daily  support. 

It  is  this  neglect,  the  alienation  it  produces,  the 
ignorance  it  perpetuates,  the  vices  it  fosters,  which 
leave  marked  the  broad  line  of  separation,  on  the 
one  side,  of  which  are  the  few,  indolent,  disdainful, 
proud,  on  the  other  the  many,  restless,  envious,  dis- 
contented. It  is  this  which  keeps  the  minds  of  a 
multitude  in  a  constant  state  of  irritation,  and  which, 
when  the  base  demagogue  seeks  to  array  the  poor 
against  the  rich,  collects  the  crowd  of  his  willing 
auditors,  and  arms  him  with  his  dreaded  power. 

It  is  this  which  caused  the  atrocities  of  the  French 
Revolution,  and  which  deepens  and  darkens  the 
cloud  that  now  hangs  over  England.  It  is  this 
neglect — the  grand  crime  of  civilized  and  Christian 
society,  w^hich,  in  every  country,  sooner  or  later, 
and  in  none  more  certainly  than  in  our  own,  if  con- 
tinued, is  destined  to  meet  a  fearful  retribution. 
Here  most  emphatically  is  it  true,  that  the  people 
must  be  raised  to  the  level  of  their  rights  and  duties, 


PREFACE,  11 

must  be  made  the  safe  depositaries  of  the  power 
which  they  possess,  or  in  the  history  of  other  repub- 
lics we  may  read  our  own  fate ; — first,  lawless  anar- 
chy— next,  the  calm  which  fear  and  the  bayonet 
produce — the  calm  of  military  despotism. 

How"  then  are  these  evils  to  be  prevented  ? — this 
fate  to  be  averted  ?  I  answer,  all  that  is  odious,  all 
that  is  dangerous  in  the  distinctions  which  the  free 
acquisition  and  the  lawful  enjoyment  of  property 
must  always  create,  will  soon  vanish,  and  all  classes 
be  united  in  the  enduring  bonds  of  sympathy  and 
gratitude,  when  the  rich  (I  include  all  who  have  the 
leisure  or  means  to  bestow)  shall  understand  and 
feel  that  it  is  their  paramount  duty  to  improve  the 
physical  and  elevate  the  moral  condition  of  their 
fellow-beings,  or,  to  express  nearly  the  whole  in  one 
word — to  educate  the  poor. 

Let  those  on  whom  the  burden  ought  to  fall  will- 
ingly assume — cheerfully  sustain  it,  and  there  will 
be  no  further  obstacle  to  the  action  of  the  legisla- 
ture, no  further  difficulty  in  organizing  a  system 
effectual,  permanent,  universal.  All  that  has  been 
done  in  Prussia,  and  is  about  to  be  done  in  France, 
may  be  done  here,  and  neither  the  patriot,  the  phi- 
lanthropist, nor  the  Christian  can  desire  more. 

J.  D. 


CONTENTS. 


SECTION  I. 

DUTIES    OF    PARENTS   IN   EDUCATING    THEIR    CHILDREN. 

These  duties  have  been  treated  in  too  general  a  manner — 
The  peculiar  duties  of  those  who  educate  their  children  in  the 
district  school  have  not  been  sufficiently  enfrrced — These 
considered — The  parent's  first  duty  is  self-examination — The 
parent  is  the  natural  instructer  and  guardian  of  the  child — 
Parents  neglect  their  children  during  the  susceptible  years  of 
infancy — Children  begin  to  act  and  learn  from  the  first  mo- 
ment of  their  existence — Parents  do  not  notice  the  effect  of 
their  own  example  before  infants — The  mother  may  shape  the 
character — Parents  leave  the  education  of  their  children  too 
much  with  the  schoolmaster — They  frequently  have  a  bad 
government  over  their  children  at  home — Difficult  to  govern 
such  children — Parents  should  co-operate  with  the  teacher — 
Supply  his  defects — Parents  should  continue  their  children's 
education  after  the  school  days  are  ended — This  by  giving 
them  the  means  of  knowledge — By  example — By  showing 
the  pleasures  and  advantages  of  knowledge — The  parent's 
happiness  depends  upon  the  education  of  his  children — The 
child's  happiness  depends  upon  its  education — The  diflference 
of  early  training  makes  the  great  difference  among  men — It  is 
the  parent's  duty  to  his  country  to  educate  his  children — It  is 
his  duty  to  society — If  the  parent  does  not  educate  his  children 
the  world  will — Virtue  and  knowledge  need  a  teacher — If 
children  are  useful  in  after-life,  it  will  be  because  they  obtain- 
ed the  power  to  be  so  while  young,         ,         ,         ,         ,  p.  25 

SECTION  II. 

QUALIFICATIONS   OF   TEACHERS. 

The  want  of  well  qualified  teachers  in  the  United  States — 
The  number  of  common  school  teachers  employed — Some  of 
the  deficiencies  described — Ignorant  of  the  studies  which  they 
teach — Ignorant  of  the  nature  and  operations  of  the  youthful 
mind — No  preparation  made  for  teaching — The  profession 
made  a  temporary  thing — In  the  first  place,  teachers  should 
well  consider  the  nature  of  their  employment — Teachers 
should  examine  their  acquirements — They  should  be  good 
readers — The  poor  reading  in  our  schools  noticed — Instruc- 
B  13 


14  CONTENTS. 

tions  in  this  art  to  teachers — The  example  of  good  reading  in 
the  teacher — Teachers  should  be  ^ood  penmen — They  should 
be  ready  and  accurate  in  the  science  of  Arithmetic — With 
Geography — Teachers  should  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  Grammar  and  Philosophy  of  the  English  Language — 
They  should  be  well  versed  in  History — They  should  be  able 
to  impart  knowledge  to  others — The  inability  of  teachers,  and 
all  students,  to  tell  what  they  know,  or  what  they  think  they 
know — Our  system  of  education  deficient,  in  making  men  com- 
municate, or  make  a  practical  use  of  what  they  learn — The 
great  necessity  of  the  teacher's  having  this  ability  of  impart- 
ing to  others, p.  36 

SECTION  III. 

QUALIFICATIONS    OF    TEACHERS,    CONTINUED. 

A  teacher  should  have  a  good  moral  character — He  should 
govern  himself — He  should  have  a  good  judgment — A  teacher 
should  have  an  even,  uniform  temper — He  should  have  deci- 
sion and  firmness — He  should  be  able  to  sympathize  with  his 
pupils — He  should  be  able  to  discriminate  character — He 
should  be  able  to  illustrate  and  simplify — He  should  teach  as 
Nature  teaches, 49 

SECTION  IV. 

QUALIFICATION    OF  TEACHERS,    CONCLUDED. 

A  teacher  should  love  his  business — He  should  make  his 
business  his  study  and  his  profession — He  should  be  patient 
and  persevering — He  should  be  able  and  disposed  to  overcome 
the  various  difficulties  of  his  arduous  profession — Several  dif- 
ficulties described — A  teacher  should  always  appear  pleasant 
and  affectionate — He  should  be  qualified  to  show  his  pupils 
the  importance  of  knowledge, 60 

SECTION  V. 

THE  ADAPTATION  AND  IMPORTANCE  OF  COMMON  SCHOOLS,  AND 
THE  DUTIES  OF  THOSE  WHO  HAVE  A  GENERAL  SUPERINTEN- 
DENCE   OVER   THEM. 

The  school  system,  adopted  by  the  state  of  New  York,  re- 
commended— The  wisdom  of  this  system — The  importance 
of  good  common  or  district  schools — The  neglect  which  learn- 
ed and  leading  men  have  given  them — The  claims  of  these 
schools  upon  the  wise  and  wealthy — The  good  effects  of  ge- 
neral intelligence — The  duties  of  inspectors — The  lax  man- 
ner in  which  they  fulfil  their  duties — They  should  be  more 
rigid — The  duties  of  the  trustees  of  common  schools — The 


CONTENTS.  15 

manner  they  have  performed  their  duties — Tlie  duties  of  com- 
missioners— The  duties  which  ministers  owe  to  common 
schools — The  duties  of  every  inhabitant  of  the  district,  p.  68 

SECTION  VI. 

TE,A.CHING    SHOULD    BE    MADE    A    PROFESSION. 

The  teacher's  profession  should  be  made  as  distinct  as  the 
lawyer's  or  the  divine's — We  should  require  professional 
knowledge  in  the  teacher  as  well  as  in  the  preacher — Teach- 
ing is  not  made  honourable  because  teachers  have  not  prepar- 
ed themselves  for  their  business — Teachers  should  avail  them- 
selves of  all  the  help  they  can  obtain — It  must  be  their  high- 
est ambition  to  be  good  schoolmasters — In  a  profession  there 
is  a  constant  accumulation  of  experimental  knowledge — In  the 
art  of  teaching  there  is  no  instruction  in  the  past — Teachers 
have  not  communicated  with  each  other — If  teaching  was 
made  a  profession,  teachers  would  sympathize  with  each  other 
— They  would  feel  that  they  had  the  honour  of  the  profession 
to  support — That  the  eyes  of  the  world  were  on  them — That 
they  might  be  known  and  honoured — He  could  then  compare 
himself  with  other  teachers — Each  teacher  would  receive  a 
part  of  the  respect  which  would  be  paid  to  the  profession,  .  80 

SECTION  VII. 

SEMINARIES    FOR    TEACHERS. 

The  necessity  of  securing  a  constant  supply  of  well-trained 
schoolmasters — As  is  the  master  so  is  the  school — The  want  of 
normal  schools  in  the  United  States — "The  state  does  noth- 
ing for  education  unless  it  educates  the  teachers" — The  ne- 
cessary qualities  of  a  schoolmaster — Training  schoolmasters 
— The  manner  of  supporting  normal  schools  in  Prussia — The 
object  of  teachers'  seminaries — The  studies  pursued — The 
plan  proposed  by  the  state  of  New  York  for  educating  teach- 
ers— How  to  secure  the  services  of  teachers — The  Prussian 
mode — The  qualifications  necessary  to  enter  a  normal  school 
— Duties  of  the  guardians  of  normal  schools — An  elementary 
department  should  be  attached  to  even  normal  schools,     .   85 

SECTION  VIII. 

THE    GOVERNMENT    AND    DISCIPLINE    OF    A    SCHOOL. 

The  government  of  a  school  should  be  a  constant  moral 
discipline — The  end  and  object  of  all  government  should  be, 
to  make  men  govern  themselves — The  teacher  should  labour  to 
to  make  his  pupils  understand  what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong, 
or  the  foundation  of  law — A  teacher  should  govern  his  scho- 


10  CONTENTS. 

lars  as  rational,  moral  beings — ^The  superiority  of  a  government 
of  reason — Punishment  should  always  answer  its  end — Pun- 
ishments should  not  be  inflicted  before  the  school — Crimes 
which  are  common  should  be  brought  before  the  school — The 
teacher  should  show  his  scholars  that  he  is  acting  under  moral 
obligations — A  teacher  should  have  the  same  government  over 
himself  out  of  school,  that  he  has  in  schod — The  govern- 
ment of  a  school  should  be  regular  and  systematic — A  teacher 
should  not  threaten  or  fret — A  government  should  not  be  se- 
vere at  one  time  and  lax  at  another — The  manners  of  children 
in  school — The  manners  of  the  American  people — The  lan- 
guage of  scholars, p.  94 

SECTION   IX. 

THE    RESPONSIBILITY    OF    TEACHERS. 

The  teacher  is  placed  with  the  young  and  ignorant  mind, 
which  is  to  be  instructed — Teachers  do  not  feel  the  responsi- 
bility of  their  office — Their  responsibility  is  increased  by  an 
original  principle  in  children  to  imitate — The  principle  of  imi- 
tation may  be  turned  to  a  good  account — Teachers  are  under  a 
high  responsibility,  since  to  them  parents  have  committed  the 
education  of  their  children — Society  expects  that  teachers  will 
make  the  children  and  youth  social,  honourable,  and  benevo- 
lent members — Teachers  are  responsible  to  their  country  for 
the  manner  in  which  they  educate  her  youth — The  responsi- 
bility of  teachers  is  great,  from  the  consideration  that  they 
will  give  character  to  future  communities — The  responsibility 
of  teachers  is  seen,  by  reflecting,  that  the  happiness  of  each 
scholar  is,  in  a  great  measure,  in  the  hands  of  the  instructer 
— And  lastly,  how  responsible  are  teachers,  since  their  influ- 
ence will  reach  into  the  world  "  that  is  to  come,"         .      104 

SECTION  X. 

THE  teacher's  COMPENSATION. 

The  labours  of  a  teacher  are  arduous  and  responsible — They 
are  not  well  rewarded — There  is  no  labour  for  which  the  Ame- 
rican people  do  not  pay  more  than  they  do  for  Elementary 
Teaching — A  young  man  cannot  afford  to  expend  one  cent  in 
preparing  himself  to  teach  a  common  school — The  unwilling- 
ness of  parents  to  pay  an  adequate  compensation  to  qualified 
teachers — Parents  do  not  perceive  the  bad  effects  of  giving  low 
wages  to  teachers — If  parents  would  give  higher  wages,  it 
would  induce  young  men  to  qualify  themselves  for  instruct- 
ing— It  would  be  for  the  parent's  interest  to  pay  higher  wages, 
and  employ  qualified  teachers — In  the  first  place,  because  it 


CONTKNTS.  17 

would  save  tuition  money — In  the  second  place,  because  it 
would  save  their  children's  time — And  in  the  third  place,  be- 
cause it  would  save  parents  much  expense  in  Books,  Paper, 
Maps,  Slates,  &c. — By  employing  a  proper  teacher  parents 
would  know  that  their  children  would  be  well  educated — Chil- 
dren would  then  love  the  school — If  parents  would  increase 
the  teacher's  wages,  they  would  raise  the  character  of  the 
teacher's  profession — Parents  cannot  receive  the  advantages 
of  the  School  System  unless  they  employ  qualified  teachers — 
And  finally,  to  pay  well  qualified  teachers  is  the  only  way  for 
parents  to  increase  the  usefulness,  and  raise  the  character  of 
district  schools, ^^  111 

SECTION  XI. 

A    TEACHER    SHOULD    MAKE    HIS    SCHOOL    PLEASANT. 

Children  and  youth  are  governed  almost  entirely  by  their 
feelings — A  teacher  must  control  and  take  advantage  of  this 
government — The  influence  of  first  impressions  with  those 
who  are  governed  by  feeling — The  teacher  must  love  his 
school  if  he  would  make  it  pleasant — He  must  create  friend- 
ship and  good-will  among  his  scholars — The  teacher  can  make 
his  school  pleasant  by  making  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
the  means  of  happiness — By  giving  his  pupils  timely  and 
agreeable  recreations — He  may  make  his  school  pleasant  by 
simplifying  the  studies,  and  by  presenting  his  instructions  in 
an  attractive  form — The  teacher  may  make  his  school  pleasant 
by  getting  the  love  and  confidence  of  his  scholars,  .         .   124 

SECTION  XII. 

THE    BEST    METHOD  OF    TEACHING    SPELLING    AND    READING. 

The  early  age  when  children  begin  to  learn — They  may 
learn  the  names  of  the  letters  as  they  learn  the  names  of  their 
playthings  or  associates — The  early  instructions  of  parents — 
The  usual  method  of  teaching  the  letters  described — A  better 
method  suggested — Directions  in  teaching  children  the  powers 
of  letters — Its  difficulty — The  bad  habit  of  not  separating  and 
pronouncing  the  syllables  when  the  word  is  spelt — The  error 
(in  learning  to  spell)  of  correcting  with  the  ear  what  belongs 
to  the  eye — A  better  method  of  teaching  spelling — The  evil 
of  confining  the  children's  attention  for  so  long  a  time  to  mere 
words — The  pupil  should  connect  a  meaning  with  words  as 
soon  as  possible — The.  unsuitableness  of  the  books  which 
children  use  while  learning  to  read — The  bad  effect  of  pro- 
nouncing words  without  affixing  any  meaning,  and  of  reading 
what  we  do  not  understand — At  present,  the  pupil  reads  to 
b2 


18  CONTENTS. 

master  the  words,  not  to  g-et  knowledge — ^The  reason  of  so 
much  poor  readinjrand  speaking  shown — Proper  reading  books 
recomnnended — Children  should  not  read  what  they  do  not 
understand — The  inability  of  the  unlearned  and  learned  to  give 
a  correct  definition  to  the  words  in  common  use — The  evil  of 
this — The  bad  practice  of  reading  with  unnatural  tones  of 
voice — Teachers  do  not  attend  to  articulation — Rules  to  pupils 
in  a  common  school  that  tliey  may  learn  to  read  well,   p.  132 

SECTION  XIII. 

THE    BEST    METHOD    OF    TEACHING    WRITING. 

The  universality  of  bad  penmanship — The  time  and  money 
wasted  in  learning  to  write — The  usual  but  defective  method 
of  teaching  writing  described — The  position  of  the  pupil  at  the 
writing  desk — The  way  in  which  the  pen  is  held — Bad  ink — 
Improper  desks — The  teacher  attending  to  something  else 
while  the  scholars  are  writing — The  teacher's  criticisms  too 
general — The  unfitness  of  the  copies  set — The  advantages  of 
writing  a  good  hand — The  child  should  commence  writing  at 
an  early  age — In  their  first  lessons  scholars  should  use  the 
slate  and  pencil — The  advantages  of  using  the  slate  and  pen- 
cil— Directions  to  the  pupil  when  it  begins  to  use  the  pen  and 
writing  book — The  cause  of  bad  ink — The  natural  position  of 
the  pupil,  and  the  proper  manner  of  holding  the  pen  described — 
Pupils  should  make  their  pens — The  hands  should  be  kept 
pliable — Scholars  should  read  writing  more — They  should 
practise  writing  without  a  copy-plate,     ....  144 

SECTION  XIV. 

THE    BEST    METHOD    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  study  of  Geography  is  very  general,  but  not  of  much 
benefit,  in  the  way  it  is  now  taught — Some  of  the  defects  in  the 
present  system  of  teaching  Geography  mentioned ;  and  first, 
scholars  do  not  easily  perceive,  and  in  many  cases  never,  the 
true  figure  and  motions  of  the  earth  from  its  representation  on 
the  plain  surfaces  of  Maps — There  is  a  want  of  Globes — 
Secondly,  the  weak  and  limited  minds  of  pupils  are  required 
to  look  over  too  much  space,  and  at  too  many  objects  at  once — 
Thirdly,  scholars  learn  the  definitions  of  the  names  of  places, 
but  do  not  form  any  idea  of  their  situation  and  appearance — 
Fourthly,  the  representation  of  places  and  objects  on  the  map, 
by  marks,  lines,  and  spaces,  do  not  cause  the  child  to  conceive 
their  true  position,  appearance,  and  location — Fifthly,  there  is 
too  much  said  of  dress,  and  fashions,  and  manners,  and  peo- 
ple ;  the  pupils  think  of  persons  rather  than  plaoes — These  evils 


CONTENTS.  19 

may  receive  a  remed)'^ — The  child  may  commence  the  study 
of  Geography  when  five  or  six  years  old — The  inductive  me- 
thod of  teaching  Geography  explained,  and  strongly  recom- 
mended— The  several  steps  in  the  study  mentioned — The 
symmetry  which  the  study  of  Geography  gives  the  mind — In- 
structions to  teachers  and  learners  of  Geography,      .    p.  153 

SECTION  XV. 

THE    BEST    METHOD    OF    TEACHING    ARITHMETIC. 

Scholars  obtain  but  little  from  arithmetic  which  is  of  any 
practical  use — ^The  reasons  for  this  suggested — The  first  steps 
are  not  mastered — The  examples  in  the  book  not  practical — 
The  rules  are  committed  but  not  understood — The  tables  but 
partly  learned — The  disgust  for  the  science — ^The  sums  worked 
out  by  the  teacher  not  understood  by  the  scholars — The  books 
deficient — Teachers  do  not  bring  enough  of  the  business  of  the 
world  into  the  school-room — Almost  the  first  thing  which  the 
child  notices  is  number — The  arithmetical  operations  of  the 
infant  mind — The  encouragement  and  direction  which  teachers 
should  give  to  these  operations — The  assistance  of  visible, 
tangible  signs — Prudence  in  the  use  of  signs  which  represent 
abstract  numbers — Directions  in  learning  the  tables — The  ne- 
cessity of  practical  business  sums  from  the  teacher — The 
teacher  should  aim  at  rapidity  of  operation,  and  discipline  of 
mind, 165 

SECTION  XVI. 

THE    BEST    METHOD    OF    TEACHING    GRAMMAR. 

The  nature  and  use  of  gnmmar — The  facts  and  phenomena 
upon  which  the  grammar  of  a  language  is  founded — The  dis- 
tinctions between  the  several  classes  of  words  or  parts  of 
speech  are  clear  and  immutable — All  have  the  opportunity  of 
observing  these  facts  and  phenomena — The  reasons  for  gram- 
mar being  an  important  study  to  all — Grammar  has  been  con- 
sidered difficult — Difficulties  have  arisen  from  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  taught,  not  from  the  nature  of  the  science — But 
few  scholars  are  benefited  by  the  study  of  grammar — The 
study  has  consisted  in  committing  to  memory  and  in  guessing 
— A  practical  knowledge  of  the  science  is  level  with  the  ca- 
pacities of  all — The  deficiency  of  books — The  rules  and  defini- 
tions not  understood — Teachers  are  seldom  good  grammarians 
— A  system  of  teaching  grammar  recommended  which  has  been 
thoroughly  tested — The  importance  of  giving  correct  definitions 
to  this  science  has  never  been  sufficiently  considered — The 
reason  given  for  so  much  guessing  in  the  parsing  exercises — 


20  CONTENTS. 

The  several  parts  of  speech  considered  separately — Their 
various  modifications — The  ability  which  the  pupil  now  has — 
Further  directions  in  finishing  the  study  of  grammar,    p.  175 

SECTION  XVII. 

HISTORY    SHOULD    BE    MADE    A    STUDY    IN    DISTRICT    SCHOOLS. 

American  youth  neglect  the  history  of  their  country — We 
know  more  of  the  history  of  other  nations — Children  and 
youth  should  study  their  country's  history,  and  prize  it  as  the 
great  register  of  civil  rights  and  noble  deeds — It  would  prepare 
them  to  act  for  the  present  and  the  future — Our  history  should 
be  taught  at  home,  and  at  school,  and  by  the  way-side — Some 
of  the  great  events  of  our  history  alluded  to — Who  does  not 
wish  to  acquaint  himself  with  these? — The  aid  which  history 
would  give, 1     •         •        •       1^^ 

SECTION  XVIII. 

COMPOSITION    SHOULD   BE    PRACTISED    IN    DISTRICT    SCHOOLS. 

There  is  but  little  attention  to  composition  in  our  common 
schools — To  compose  well  is  not  made  a  necessary  qualifica- 
tion in  the  teacher — Scholars  dislike  composition,  and  consider 
the  art  a  mystery — Scholars  make  an  improper  choice  of  sub- 
jects for  composition — They  suppose  that  something  entirely 
original  must  be  written — In  composition,  scholars  practise 
the  harder  to  learn  the  easier — ^The  bad  influence  of  ill-direct- 
ed efforts  and  wrong  instruction — The  preventive  of  these  evils 
— Directions  to  young  writers — Composition  should  have  a 
prominent  place  in  our  primary  schools — The  good  effects  of 
exercises  in  composition — The  scholar's  inability  to  commu- 
nicate his  ideas — Composition  not  difficult — Directions  to  the 
teacher,      ...  189 

SECTION  XIX. 

NATURAL    HISTORY. 

The  study  of  Natural  History  neglected  in  our  common 
schools — The  farmer  and  mechanic  unacquainted  with  nature 
and  material  objects — Ignorance  of  the  simple  truths  of  physi- 
ology— Of  anatomy — Of  Hygea — A  text-book  on  philosophy 
wanted — Ignorance  of  geology  and  mineralogy — Of  the  vege- 
table kingdom — The  want  of  a  class-book  on  natural  history 
in  general — Vegetable  improvability — The  importance  of  the 
study  of  zoology,  ornithology,  &c. — The  allurements  of  these 
studies — A  knowledge  of  natural  history  useful  to  the  farmer 
and  mechanic — District  cabinets  and  herbariums  proposed, 
and  the  obligation  to  study  nature  enforced,         .  195 


CONTENTS.  21 

SECTION  XX. 

CONVENTIONS   OF    TEACHERS. 

Conventions  may  improve  teachers  and  the  systems  of  in- 
struction— Other  classes  of  men  and  professions  have  their 
conventions — The  utility  of  these  conventions — Teachers'  con- 
ventions may  be  made  as  useful — The  teacher  needs  all  the 
help  he  can  get — The  necessity  of  teachers'  conventions — The 
object  of  conventions — The  business  that  may  be  transacted 
before  them — The  mutual  improvem.ent  of  teachers— Means 
proposed  at  these  conventions  for  improving  the  condition  of 
the  schools  and  the  state  of  education — Means  that  may  be 
used  at  these  conventions  for  exciting  an  interest  in  primary 
schools,  and  of  arousing  the  indifference  of  parents,    p,  201 

SECTION  XXI. 

THE    LOCATION   AND    STRUCTURE    OF    SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

Our  school-houses  are  among  the  worst  specimens  of  archi- 
tecture— The  reasons  for  this — The  improper  location  of 
school-houses — The  influence  of  such  locations — The  bad 
structure  of  school-houses — A  proper  location  described — The 
teaching  of  outward  objects,  whether  animate  or  inanimate 
— The  size  of  a  suitable  school-house — Its  proper  structure — 
Suitable  fixtures — The  influence  of  unsuitable  seats  and  desks 
— School-houses  are  poorly  ventilated — The  bad  effects  of  im- 
pure air — The  plaj^-ground  for  the  scholars — Wood-house — A 
suitable  watering  place,        ......    207 

SECTION  XXII. 

RHETORIC    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 

The  common  belief  that  scholars  must  "  learn  how^''  to 
speak — The  popularity  of  artificial  systems  of  rhetoric — These 
do  not  give  a  good  natural  delivery — The  universal  practice 
of  speaking  in  elementary  schools — The  effect  of  so  much  ar- 
tificial training — Objections  against  artificial  schemes  of  rhe- 
toric— Notice  of  some  ingenious  and  useful  remarks  from 
authors  of  artificial  schemes — The  different  tones  of  voice 
which  the  same  individual  makes  use  of  in  conversation  from 
those  which  he  uses  while  reading — The  effect  of  reading  in 
these  unnatural  tones — ^The  impressiveness  of  a  natural  man- 
ner— The  sense  should  be  thought  of,  and  let  nature  suggest 
the  manner — The  natural  manner  does  not  consist  in  taking  no 
pains  at  all — The  difficulties  of  reading  or  speaking  naturally, 
that  is,  according  to  the  sense,  the  subject,  the  place,  and  the 
occasion — Under  these  artificial  schemes,  scholars  are  unfitted 
for  instruction  in  elocution  when  they  enter  higher  institutions 


22  CONTENTS. 

— Yet,  we  think  it  the  duty  of  every  elementary  teacher  to  do 
all  in  his  power  to  make  his  pupils  good  readers  and  speakers 
— But  he  should  not  use  art — Let  nature  teach — Teachers 
should  begin  with  scholars  when  they  learn  their  letters — 'I'he 
habits  formed  while  learning  to  spell  and  read — Articulation 
— Let  nothing  be  read  but  what  is  understood — Let  the  scho- 
lar withdraw  his  attention  from  himself,  and  enter  into  the 
feelings  and  thoughts  of  the  author — Unsuitable  pieces  select- 
ed for  declamation — Proper  subjects  for  speaking  pointed  out 
— ^The  advantages  of  a  natural  manner,    .         .         .  77.  214 

SECTION  xxm. 

RELIGIOUS    INSTRUCTION    IN    COMMON    SCHOOLS.       .  .  .  223 


PART  II. 
SECTION  L 

EVILS    FROM    IGNORANCE. 

The  universal  truths  which  history  presents — The  imagin- 
ary evils  which  ignorance  has  connected  with  the  Laws  of 
Nature — Eclipses,  comets,  judicial  astrology,  ignis-fatai, 
superstitious  notions,  spectres,  ideal  agencies,  foolish  and 
erroneous  maxims,  whimsical  and  false  sayings — The 
prevalence  of  these,  and  their  great  evil — The  cruelty  and  in- 
justice from  ignorance — Evils  which  the  ignorant  bring  upon 
themselves  by  not  perceiving  and  conforming  to  the  natural 
relations  which  exist  between  themselves  and  the  objects  around 
them — Evils  from  an  improper  and  excessive  use  of  the  senses 
— ^The  intellectual  nature  designed  to  govern  the  sensual — 
Evils  from  the  government  of  the  animal  nature — Evils  of 
the  ignorance  of  muscular  action — Evils  from  not  perceiving 
the  teachings  of  the  Creator — Evils  from  the  want  of  a  moral 
and  intellectual  vision, 236 

SECTION  II. 

ADVANTAGES    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 

A  comparison  of  the  means  of  happiness  between  a  literate 
and  illiterate  people — Knowledge,  by  showing  the  true  princi- 
ples and  nature  of  things,  will  prevent  those  evils  which  origi- 
nate in  ignorance — The  foundation  of  science — The  favourable 
employment  of  the  enlightened  farmer — The  ability  of  the  in- 
telligent practical  man — Knowledge  makes  men  more  skilful 


CONTENTS.  23 

in  the  arts — The  advantage  which  the  intelligent  agriculturist 
has  over  his  less  informed  neighbour — The  necessity  of  a  good 
education,  that  men  may  be  profited  by  public  instruction — 
The  reason  of  so  much  indifference  to  useful  knowledge — The 
instructions  of  the  public — Knowledge  would  qualify  men  for 
judging  correctly  of  human  character  and  human  happiness — 
The  advantage  of  knowledge  is  seen  by  making  a  judicious 
selection  of  books — The  enlightened  man  has  the  advantage 
of  knowing  what  is  transacting  in  the  world — Knowledge 
would  cause  all,  after  an  honest  examination,  to  see  the  evi- 
dence of  revealed  religion — Knowledge  assists  us  in  forming 
more  enlarged  and  correct  conceptions  of  the  Deity — Know- 
ledge is  necessary,  likewise,  that  we  may  know  in  what  true 
happiness  consists, p.  244 

SECTION  III. 

THE    NECESSITY    OF    GENERAL    INTELLIGENCE    IN    A    FREE 
GOVERNMENT. 

In  a  free  government,  the  people  should  be  intelligent  enough 
to  make  their  laws,  and  virtuous  enough  to  obey  them — Each 
individual's'intelligence  and  virtue  are  the  depository  and  de- 
fence of  his  liberty — Knowledge  stands  in  the  place  of  armies, 
revenues,  and  a  throne — Knowledge  is  necessary  to  perceive 
the  nature  and  value  of  literary  and  civil  institutions — To 
know  when  justice  is  administered — Knowledge  is  necessary, 
for  the  people  in  the  inferior  courts  are  the  judicial  part  of 
the  government — Knowledge  is  necessary  that  the  people 
may  see  the  effect  of  crime  and  the  justice  of  punishment — To 
distinguish  between  the  particular  and  general  effect  of  crime — 
The  mischiefs  of  perjury  and  stealing  considered,  for  illustra- 
tion— Knowledge  is  necessary  that  men  who  govern  them- 
selves may  see  the  agreement  between  civil  and  revealed  IfKv — 
To  see  the  necessity  of  obeying  the  laws — To  enable  men  to 
regulate  their  wants  and  claims  to  the  wants  and  claims  of 
others — Knowledge  is  necessary  that  all  may  see  the  wants 
of  society  for  professional  men — Knowledge  is  required  that 
men  may  not  be  deceived  by  the  errors  of  the  press — And 
lastly,  knowledge  is  necessary  that  all  may  know  who  are 
the  enlightened  and  conscientious  friends  and  supporters  of 
their  free  institutions, 257 

SECTION  IV. 

DUTIES    WHICH    WE   OWE    TO    EACH    OTHER. 

Society  natural  to  man — Advantages  of  society — Some  of 
the  laws  which  the  Creator  has  given  man  in  society — ^The 


24  CONTENTS. 

duties  of  justice — We  should  be  just  towards  the  property  of 
others — We  should  not  interfere  with  the  freedom  of  other's 
actions — Justice  makes  us  respect  the  character  and  reputation 
of  others — Justice  requires  us  to  exercise  fairness  in  forming- 
our  opinions  of  others — Justice  is  to  be  exercised  in  judging 
of  the  statements  of  others — Justice  enjoins  us  to  respect  the 
feelings  and  affections  of  others — Justice  demands  that  we 
should  be  impartial  in  estimating  the  talents  of  others — And 
justice  demands  that  we  should  not  injure  the  moral  princi- 
ples of  others — ^The  duty  of  veracity — It  should  make  men 
faithful  and  critical  in  ascertaining  facts — Scrupulous  in  stating 
them — And  faithful  in  the  fulfilment  of  promises — Benevo- 
lence, or  the  duties  which  consist  in  doing  good — We  should 
administer  to  each  other's  necessities — Our  benevolence  should 
be  eager  to  relieve  personal  suffering — It  is  our  duty  to  attend 
to  the  education  of  others — It  is  our  duty  to  make  men  moral — 
Benevolence  disposes  us  to  be  agreeable  to  our  fellow-men — 
And  lastly,  in  all  our  intercourse  with  men,  we  should  endea- 
vour to  make  peace, p.  268 

SECTION  V. 

PATRIOTIC    DUTIES    TO    OUR   COUNTRY. 

Nature  has  laid  a  foundation  for  distinct  communities — ^The 
influence  of  knowledge  and  reason — The  love  of  our  country 
natural  and  a  duty — Our  first  patriotic  duty  is  the  duty  of  obe- 
dience— That  considered  which  gives  moral  and  legal  autho- 
rity— An  objection  to  Blackstone's  definition  of  law — The 
source  of  the  laws  in  the  United  States — The  origin  of  our 
government — It  is  a  duty  to  respect  those  who  are  elected  to 
civil  offices — The  third  duty  mentioned  is,  we  should  defend 
the  laws  and  constitution  of  our  country — We  should  not 
onl^bei/,  respect^  and  defejid  our  country,  but,  in  the  fourth 
place,  w'e  should  increase  the  means  of  public  happiness  in 
the  nation — The  citizen  is  to  improve  the  laws — Caution  in 
making  innovation — The  reason  why  men  are  apt  to  make 
changes  under  the  name  of  reform — We  may  augment  the 
happiness  of  our  country  by  increasing  its  products — By  open- 
ing new  markets  for  its  products — By  facilitating  the  inter- 
course between  districts — By  the  establishment  of  institutions 
of  charity  and  instruction — By  being  able  and  disposed  to 
correct  the  errors  which  exist  in  the  system  of  government — 
By  adapting  the  form  of  government  to  the  condition  and  cha- 
racter of  the  people — And  lastly,  by  making  ourselves  virtuous 
and  intelligent, 283 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL 


SECTION  I. 

DUTIES    OF    PARENTS    IN    EDUCATING    THEIR 
CHILDREN. 

"  If  children,"  says  a  writer  in  the  Foreign  Quarterly  Review, 
(No.  XXIV.,)  "provided  their  own  education,  and  could  be  sensi- 
ble of  its  importance  to  their  happiness,  it  would  be  a  ivarit,  and 
might  be  left  to  the  natural  demand  and  supply ;  but  as  it  is  pro- 
vided by  the  parents,  and  paid  for  by  those  who  do  not  profit  by  its 
results,  it  is  a  chity,  and  is  therefore  liable  to  be  neglected." 

"  Art.  43.  Every  inhabitant  who  cannot,  or  will  not,  cause  the 
needful  instruction  to  be  given  to  his  children  at  home,  is  bound  to 
send  them  to  school  from  the  age  of  five  years. 

"  Art.  44.  From  that  age  no  child  shall  omit  going  to  school,  nor 
absent  himself  from  it  for  any  length  of  time,  unless  under  particu- 
lar circumstances,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  civil  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal authorities." — School  Laws  of  Paris,  Part  II.  'Htle  XII. 

There  has  been  much  said  and  written  on  the 
duties  of  parents  ;  and  it  is  well  that  this  subject  has 
been  so  frequently  and  ably  discussed,  for  there  is 
none  of  greater  importance.  In  what  will  now  be 
said,  there  may  be  nothing  new  ;  and  I  shall  feel 
satisfied  in  bringing  to  notice  some  of  the  duties 
which  the  most  have  frequently  felt  and  performed. 
Many  of  the  duties  of  parents,  respecting  their  chil- 
dren's education,  have  heretofore  been  treated  in  too 
general  a  manner.  We  need  not  only  to  be  re- 
minded of  our  duties,  but  to  be  reminded  of  them  in 
such  a  manner  that  we  shall  see  and  feel,  and  be  as- 
sisted in  doing  them.  Parents  w^ho  educate  their 
children  in  the  district  school  have  many  duties  pe- 
C  25 


26  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

culiar  to  themselves  ;  and  they  are  such  as  have  not 
been  sufficiently  enforced  by  former  writers  on  this 
subject.  It  is  my  design  to  notice  these  more  par- 
ticularly, and  to  suit  my  remarks  to  those  parents 
who  possess  only  the  means  of  the  district  school 
for  the  education  of  their  children. 

Many  of  these  parents,  not  having  been  privileged 
with  good  schools,  or  leisure  to  attend  such  while 
they  were  young,  do  not  so  readily  perceive  the  ad- 
vantages of  knowledge,  and  consequently  are  apt  to 
neglect  a  better  provision  for  their  children's  educa- 
tion. To  such,  particularly,  we  hope  that  what  will 
be  said  may  be  both  acceptable  and  useful.* 

The  first  duty  which  parents  owe  to  their  children 
is  self-examination.  Are  you  what  you  wish  your 
children  to  be  ?  Have  you  that  evenness  of  temper, 
that  government  over  your  own  heart,  thoughts,  and 
actions  which  you  would  like  to  see  in  your  chil- 
dren ?  Have  you  that  justice,  industry,  and  frugal- 
ity which  you  desire  your  children  to  possess  ?  Do 
you  consider  yourself  at  all  times  a  proper  example 
to  your  family  ? 

Such  questions,  or  similar  ones,  should  you  put 

*  "  Persons  of  uncultivated  and  torpid  minds  are  not  aware 
to  what  an  extent  education  can  raise,  enlarge,  and  stimulate 
the  understanding-;  in  how  great  a  measure  it  insures  a  per- 
son's happiness,  and  makes  him  both  independent  of  the  world, 
and  a  safe  and  peaceable  member  of  society."  Here  and  there 
we  find  an  individual  to  whom  strong  good  sense  and  a  lively 
curiosity  reveal  the  magnitude  of  his  want;  but  a  man  has 
already  got  beyond  the  first  rudeness  and  apathy  of  ignorance 
who  longs  for  knowledge.  Are,  then,  the  rudeness  and  apathy 
of  the  fathers  a  reason  for  transmitting  them  unaltered  to  the 
children  1  Or,  to  go  higher,  are  the  false  notions,  the  useless 
acquirements,  the  imperfect  instruction  of  the  ill-educated 
of  the  wealthier  sort,  a  reason  that,  because  they  are  satisfied 
with  themselves,  an  enlightened  government  should  permit 
the  same  waste  and  destruction  of  moral  and  intellectual  facul- 
ties to  go  on  from  generation  to  generation  1 — Foreign  Quar- 
ttrly  Review. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  27 

to  yourself  before  you  assume  the  responsible  du- 
ties of  forming  the  character  of  others.  To  educate 
your  children,  in  the  full  sense  of  the  term,  is  to 
form  their  characte^^s^ — to  give  them  a  character 
which  will  last,  not  only  through  time,  but  in  eternity. 

Parents  are  the  natural  guardians  of  their  children. 
To  you  is  committed  the  protection  and  education 
of  those  whom  God  has  given  you,  and  you  will  be 
accountable  for  the  faithfulness  or  unfaithfulness  in 
which  you  perform  this  duty.  You  have  strong 
obligations  and  high  duties  to  the  community,  to 
your  country,  and  to  your  friends  ;  but  much  stronger 
and  infinitely  higher  ones  to  yourselves,  your  chil- 
dren, and  your  Creator.  Parents  may  receive  liberty 
and  protection  from  government, — they  may  receive 
comforts  and  en^joyments  from  society,  but  from 
these  sources  they  can  obtain  but  little  aid  in  the 
primal  education  of  their  children.  This  is  a  work 
which  belongs  to  themselves  exclusively. 

But,  from  the  supposed  insensibility  and  incapa- 
city of  the  child  during  the  three  or  four  first  years 
of  its  existence,  parents  often  neglect  the  education, 
or  the  formation  of  the  character,  at  that  early  but 
susceptible  age.  Many  parents  seem  not  to  observe, 
that  the  infant  commences  an  education  from  the 
first  moment  of  its  existence.  They  see  not  that 
every  look  from  its  mother,  every  notice  from  its 
father,  every  animate  and  inanimate  object  which 
attracts  its  attention,  every  sound  and  tone  of  voice, 
and  family  circumstance,  are  forming  a  character  in 
the  child,  and  giving  some  kind  of  an  education, 
either  good  or  bad,  which  will  influence  the  after-life. 

Parents  who  do  not  perceive  the  wakeful  atten- 
tion and  deep  susceptibilities  of  early  childhood,  are 
not  careful  of  their  conduct  when  before  their  off- 
spring, nor  are  they  guarded  in  their  expressions, 
and  thus  insensibly  form  a  character  in  their  chil- 
dren which  after-instruction  and  good  example  will 


28  DISTRICT    Sf'HOOL. 

never  change.  Parents  should  know  the  capacities 
of  their  children  ; — they  should  ascertain  what  pas- 
sion or  propensity  is  acquiring  undue  strength,  and 
how  far  the  child  is  capable  of  receiving  wholesome 
restraint  and  moral  instruction.  They  should  see 
that  circumstances,  apparently  fortuitous,  often  have 
great  influence,  if  not  carefully  watched  and  dili- 
gently counteracted. 

To  the  mother  is  committed  the  principal  part 
of  her  children's  education,  till  they  are  three  or 
four  years  old.  During  this  time  she  may  stamp  a 
character,  which  will  remain  through  life.  She  may 
so  moderate  the  passions,  restrict  the  appetites,  cor- 
rect the  desires,  and  obtain  so  firm  a  government 
over  the  mind  and  affections  of  the  child,  as  to  form 
the  most  decided  character.  After  the  child  com- 
mences going  to  school,  much  of  its  time  is  spent 
with  the  parents. 

The  duties  of  parents  are  relieved  by  the  teacher 
but  a  short  time.  Their  watchfulness  and  care,  at 
this  period,  when  the  child  is  meeting  with  new 
companions,  new  modes  of  government,  and  an  in- 
creased number  of  objects,  should  be  greater  than 
before.  Even  if  the  privilege  of  a  school  be  enjoyed, 
the  education  of  the  cliildren  belongs,  in  a  great  de- 
gree, to  the  parents.  By  the  parents  it  must  be  com- 
menced, carried  forward,  and  completed. 

Parents  leave  the  education  of  their  children  too 
much  with  the  schoolmaster.  You  appear  to  think, 
that  providing  your  offspring  with  food  and  clothing 
is  all  that  is  required  of  you  :  the  education,  the 
formation  of  the  character,  you  say,  belongs  to  the 
teacher.  This  cannot  be  so.  Your  example,  com- 
panions, opinions,  and  expressions,  will  unite  with 
the  teacher's  instructions.  You  should,  instead  of 
trusting  all  to  the  teacher,  co-operate  with  him,  unite 
your  labours  with  his,  and  ascertain  the  influence 
of  the  teacher  and  the  influence  of  the  school. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  29 

Do  not  speak  unfavourably  of  the  teacher  before 
your  children,  but  teach  them  to  love  the  instructer 
and  the  school-room,  and  at  all  times  to  be  obedient 
If  your  children  are  under  a  good  government  at 
home,  it  will  greatly  aid  the  teacher  in  managing 
them  at  school  ;  but,  if  the  government  at  home  is 
bad,  it  will  be  difficult  for  the  instructer  to  control 
their  conduct,  or  establish  any  government  over 
them  during  the  school  hours. 

You  often  complain  of  the  defective  government 
of  the  teacher,  yet  do  not  perceive  that  the  children 
at  home  are  under  no  restraint.  You,  perhaps,  have 
indulged  them  in  every  whim  and  desire  ;  subdued 
but  fi^w  of  their  vicious  inclinations  ;  suffered  them 
to  grow  up  disobedient  and  inattentive  :  and  now, 
how  can  you  expect  the  teacher  to  bring  them  under 
an  orderly,  respectful  behaviour  at  school  ?  Do  not 
find  fault  with  the  teacher  till  you  have  examined 
your  own  government,  and  ascertained  how  far  you 
have  fitted  them  for  obeying  or  disobeying  others. 

In  your  family  government,  during  the  stated 
times  you  may  appoint  for  instructing  your  chil- 
dren, during  the  leisure  moments  you  may  get  from 
your  labours,  in  all  your  conversation  and  in  your 
daily  walk,  you  should  unite  with  your  influence 
and  instruction  in  aiding  the  teacher  of  your  school. 
Let  the  studies  of  your  children  while  at  school  be 
their  principal  business. 

Do  not  send  them  to  school  one  day,  and  keep 
them  at  home  the  next  ;*  do  not  divert  their  minds 
in  any  manner  ;  at  all  times  feeling  that  their  edu- 
cation is  the  greatest  duty  you  owe  to  them.     Co- 

*  The  regular  attendance  at  the  school  shall  be  an  object 
of  special  control  and  the  most  active  vigilance ;  for  this  is  the 
source  from  which  flow  all  the  advantages  the  school  can  pro- 
duce. It  would  be  very  fortunate  if  parents  and  children  were 
always  willing  of  themselves  to  facilitate  the  measures  adopted 
to  secure  regular  attendance  at  the  schools. — Cousin^s  Report. 
c  2 


30  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

operate  with  the  teacher  of  your  scliool,  1)y  furnish- 
ing the  children  with  suitable  books,  and  an  appro- 
priate school-room,  well  supplied  with  every  neces- 
sary. 

If  your  teacher  is  not  qualified,  you  should  coun- 
teract his  bad  influence  and  supply  his  defects.  You 
should  often  visit  the  school  and  see  its  condition, 
and  examine  the  progress  of  the  children.  Ascer- 
tain for  yourselves  the  real  qualifications  of  the 
teacher  and  the  government  of  his  school,  and  do 
not  trust  to  the  accounts  your  children  may  give 
of  either  ;  and,  at  all  times,  let  the  school  have  your 
attention  and  your  aid. 

After  your  children  have  ended  their  school-days, 
you  should  still  carry  on  their  education.  This  you 
may  do  by  providing  them  with  periodical  papers, 
with  instructive  and  entertaining  books,  with  the 
privileges  of  public  lectures,  and  with  your  own  ex- 
perience and  intelligent  conversation.  Strive  to 
give  your  children  a  taste  for  knowledge,  a  love  of 
home  and  study,  and  a  relish  for  intellectual  and 
moral  improvement. 

You  should  love  knowledge  yourself,  and  set  a 
good  example  by  the  cultivation  of  your  heart  and 
mind.  If  you  are  not  fond  of  reading,  it  is  not 
likely  that  your  children  will  be  ;  if  you  do  not  find 
pleasure  in  knowledge,  your  children  will  suppose 
it  has  no  enjoyment  for  them.  You  should  show 
them  the  necessity  and  the  advantage  of  knowledge. 
Let  them  see  the  application  of  what  they  do  know; 
and  let  there  always  be  an  increased  desire  to  know 
more. 

Your  own  happiness  may  depend  upon  the  educa- 
tion of  your  children.  Why  is  it  that  so  many 
young  men  consider  home  a  burden  ?  Why  do  so 
many  assemble  in  vicious  places  for  amusement  ? 
Why  is  company  their  ruin,  and  society  a  snare  ? 
Because  they  have  never  been  educated  to  the  love 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  31 

of  knowledge  ;  because  they  have  no  pleasure  in 
the  society  of  intelligent  and  virtuous  men. 

If  you  wish  to  keep  your  children  from  the  temp- 
tations of  a  wicked  world,  from  its  schools  of  iniquity 
and  vice,  opened  in  every  place,  let  them  have  such 
an  education  that  they  will  find  pleasure  in  them- 
selves. Let  them  not  be  dependent  for  happiness 
on  the  gratification  of  their  senses  ;  let  them  not  be 
fitted  only  for  the  company  of  the  ignorant  and  the 
corrupted.  The  reason  why  young  men  are  so  prone 
to  low  and  grovelling  pleasures,  is,  their  minds  are 
not  cultivated.  A  taste  for  useful  knowledge  would 
exclude  the  taste  for  dissipation  ;  and  the  gratifica- 
tion of  mind  would  be  cheaper  as  well  as  happier. 

If  children  were  taught  to  think,  and  assisted  in 
discovering  materials  for  thought,  they  would  find 
a  pleasure  in  the  exercise  of  their  rational  faculties 
far  superior  to  the  gross  pleasures  of  animal  indul- 
gence. If  your  children  were  taught  to  enjoy  this 
pleasure,  and  were  furnished  the  means  of  obtaining 
it,  with  books  of  an  interesting  and  useful  character, 
and  with  sensible  and  rational  conversation, — home 
would  be  rendered  attractive,  and  there  would  be  no 
necessity  of  roving  abroad  in  search  of  something  to 
amuse  them. 

If  they  were  trained  to  habits  of  reflection,  they 
would  not  run  into  so  many  evils  from  mere  thought- 
lessness. If  they  were  taught  the  value  of  useful 
knowledge,  they  would  not  waste  their  time  in  the 
perusal  of  those  works  of  fiction  with  which  the 
world  is  flooded,  and  which  are  so  dangerous  in  their 
tendency  :  dangerous  from  the  erroneous  views  they 
give  of  real  life,  the  corrupt  sentiments  they  often 
contain,  and  the  fascinating  attractions  with  which 
they  surround  vice  and  crime. 

An  expensive  education  is  not  necessary.  It  is 
such  an  education  as  you  can  give  them  in  your  dis- 
trict school,  and  at  your  own  fire-side.     If  you  will 


32  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

begin  early  with  your  children,  and  teach  them  to 
think  and  inquire  into  the  reason  of  things,  you  will 
find  abundant  means  and  materials  within  your  reach 
for  such  mental  cultivation  as  is  here  required. 

A  child  that  grows  up  in  ignorance  and  in  vicious 
habits  is  not  only  helpless,  but  hopeless.  A  child 
that  grows  up  intelligent  and  virtuous  will  not  only 
be  happy,  but  will  render  all  so  within  his  influence. 
How  delightful  it  must  be  for  parents  to  see  their 
offspring  learned,  cheerful,  and  happy  in  themselves, 
and  increasing  the  happiness  of  all  with  whom  they 
have  intercourse! 

But,  0  how  painful  to  see  their  children  ignorant, 
dissipated,  and  wretched  within  themselves,  and 
wherever  they  go,  blasting  the  happiness  of  others  ! 
They  will  be  either  the  one  or  the  other,  in  a  great 
measure,  according  to  the  education  you  give  them. 
Their  characters  are  formed  by  education.  There 
may  be  some  natural  difference  in  children,  owing 
to  a  diversity  of  constitutional  temperament ;  but  it 
is  believed  that  difference  of  early  training  makes 
the  great  distinction  observable  in  after-life. 

The  Bible  says,  "  Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he 
should  go,  and  when  he  is  old  he  will  not  depart 
from  it."  And  to  the  parent  who  neglects  to  fulfil 
this  duty,  Jehovah  says,  "  Seeing  thou  hast  forgotten 
the  law  of  thy  God,  I  also  will  forget  thy  children." 

The  education  of  your  children,  likewise,  is  a  duty 
to  your  country.  You  are  under  the  strongest  obli- 
gations to  prepare  your  offspring  for  becoming  intel- 
ligent, useful  citizens.  A  freeman  must  be  an  intel- 
ligent man  ;  and  this  government,  wise  as  it  is, 
cannot  make  your  children  free,  unless  you  first 
make  them  intelligent.  You  had  better  place  your 
children  in  another  land,  where  others  will  govern 
them,  unless  j^ou  prepare  them  for  governing  them- 
selves. 

But,  as  you  intend  them  to  be  members  of  this 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  33 

republic,  which  is  based  on  intelligence,  sustained 
by  intelligence,  and  looks  to  virtue  and  intelligence 
for  its  protection  and  safeguard,  you  are  under  the 
most  solemn  obligations,  if  you  love  your  country 
and  value  its  blessings,  to  make  your  children  intel- 
ligent. To  permit  a  son  unable  to  read  to  go  to  the 
polls,  is  as  great  an  injury  as  you  can  do  your  coun- 
try. It  is,  in  fact,  as  far  as"  his  vote  and  influence 
go,  as  great  a  crime  as  you  could  commit  towards 
these  free  institutions. 

In  a  despotic  government,  ignorance  is  the  best 
quality  in  the  people,  but  a  free  government  demands 
virtue  and  intelligence  ;  it  cannot  prosper,  it  cannot 
exist,  without  them.  Then,  if  you  desire  the  per- 
petuity of  your  liberties,  the  equal  rights  and  privi- 
leges of  these  free  institutions,  and  the  honour  and 
glory  of  your  happy  country,  educate  your  children; 
fit  them  for  enacting,  administering,  and  obeying 
their  own  laws.  Unless  you  do  this,  you  are  not 
your  country's  friend.* 

You  are  also  bound,  and  bound  by  ties  stronger 
than  any  other,  to  make  your  children  happy.  It 
is  true,  you  love  your  children  ;  you  wish  them 
every  blessing  ;  you  would  not  see  them  suffer  a 
single  hour.  Yes,  you  feel  probably  quite  enough 
concerned  as  to  what  they  shall  eat,  and  what  they 
shall  drink,  and  wherewithal  they  shall  be  clothed. 
And  it  may  be,  that  you  feel  sufficiently  concerned 
to  have  them  successful  in  the  world,  and  prosperous 
in  their  temporal  affairs. 

*  The  obligation  of  parents  to  send  their  children  to  school 
is  of  great  antiquity  in  Prussia.  The  powerful  and  active 
superintendence  exercised  by  the  church  over  the  education 
of  the  people,  dates  from  the  origin  of  protestantism,  of  which 
it  is  an  inherent  characteristic.  It  is  evident  that  the  authors 
of  a  revolution  effected  in  the  name  of  liberty  of  conscience 
must  necessarily  labour  at  the  emancipation  of  the  popular 
mind,  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  as  the  only  secure  means 
of  defending  their  cause  and  rooting  it  in  the  minds  of  the 
people. — Cousin's  Reprirf. 


34  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

But  food  and  clothing  are  not  the  extent  of  their 
wants.  Neither  will  wealth  or  honour  make  them 
happy.  Real  enjoyment,  true  happiness,  depend 
upon  the  mind  ;  and  the  mind  is  formed  by  educa- 
tion. Then,  if  you  in  the  least  neglect  the  cultiva- 
tion of  their  minds  and  hearts,  you  cannot  act  the 
part  of  affectionate  parents.  You  wish  your  children 
to  be  the  companions  of  the  wise  and  good;  but 
unless  they  are  learned  and  moral,  they  will  be  unfit 
for  such  society. 

You  wish  them  happy  whether  in  prosperity  or 
adversity  ;  then  prepare  them,  by  a  proper  educa- 
tion, to  find  happiness  within  themselves.  It  is 
exercising  the  mind,  and  placing  the  affections  on 
things  worthy  of  the  immortal  soul,  that  will  give 
them  satisfaction.  It  is  not  sensual  gratification 
that  makes  man  happy,  it  is  thought  and  love. 

But  you  are  not  only  to  prepare  your  children 
for  transacting  the  business  of  life,  but  to  act  upon 
and  educate  other  immortal  beings.  Your  children 
will  have  an  influence  upon  others  ;  they  are  made 
for  society,  and  cannot  live  alone  :  their  influence 
will  be  felt  by  all  with  whom  they  have  intercourse; 
even  when  they  shall  not  aim  at  exerting  an  influ- 
ence upon  others,  it  may  not  be  less  sensibly  felt. 

If  their  minds  are  so  formed  that  they  can  be 
happy  in  themselves,  they  will  contribute  to  the 
happiness  of  others  ;  but  if  their  education  has  been 
such  as  to  render  them  incapable  of  enjoyment,  they 
will  be  continually  destroying  the  peace  and  com- 
fort of  those  around  them;  yes,  they  will  frequently 
do  it  by  design,  in  order  to  gratify  their  selfish  feel- 
ings :  and  they  will  do  it  without  design — for  being 
wretched,  sympathy  will  make  others  miserable 
also. 

If  your  children  are  trained  up  in  the  right  way, 
they  may  do  great  good  in  the  world  ;  but  if  not, 
they  will  destroy  peace,  and  be  promoters  of  discord 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  35 

and  confusion.  -  If  you  neglect  their  expanding 
minds,  they  may  obtain  in  the  schools  of  vice  a 
quickness  of  intellect,  a  plausibility  of  address,  and 
thus  gain  an  influence  over  the  inexperienced  and 
unthinking,  and  become  but  too  successful  in  seducing 
them  far  from  the  paths  of  virtue,  and  plunging  them 
into  the  vortex  of  dissipation  and  vice  ;  thus  blast- 
ing the  hopes  of  many  an  affectionate  parent,  and 
bringing  destruction  upon  their  own  souls  for  time 
and  eternity. 

Such  cases  are  common  ;  and  they  may  be  the 
cases  of  your  own  children  if  there  is  parental  un- 
faithfulness. Your  children,  also,  will  be  the  edu- 
cators, the  formers  of  the  character  of  their  children; 
and  these  again  will  educate  those  that  follow  after, 
till  the  good  or  evil  consequences  of  what  you  are 
now  doing  shall  spread  far  and  wide,  and  go  down 
to  the  end  of  time.  No,  the  consequences  will  not 
stop  there, — they  will  extend  through  eternity.  How 
responsible  your  situation! 

There  is  another  consideration  which  should  make 
you  prize  every  privilege,  and  do  all  in  your  power 
to  educate  your  children:  it  is  this, — if  they  are  ever 
useful  and  happy  in  after-life,  it  will  be  because  they 
obtained  the  power  to  be  so  when  young.  When 
they  have  reached  manhood,  the  character  is  form- 
ed, the  education  is  completed,  and  the  man  will 
continue,  with  scarcely  an  exception,  what  he 
then  is. 

While  your  children  are  with  you,  under  your 
government,  they  are  laying  the  foundation  of  their 
future  career  ;  and  this  foundation  may  be  whatever 
you  shall  choose  :  if  it  is  broad  and  deep,  they  may 
build  upon  it  indefinitely;  if  it  is  false,  they  will  get 
no  other.  What  you  prepare  them  to  be  is  their 
only  preparation.  In  most  cases,  what  manhood 
finds  them  when  they  leave  your  roof,  the  grave 
will  find  them  when  they  leave  the  earth. 


36  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

SECTION  II. 

QUALIFICATIONS    OF    TEACHERS. 

I  KNOW  of  nothing  in  which  this  government  is 
so  deficient  as  it  is  in  well  qualified  teachers  for  her 
elementary  schools.  The  two  great  things  which 
are  wanting  in  this  country,  are,  competent  teachers, 
and  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  parents  to  pay  such 
teachers  a  suitahle  compensation.  I  will  speak  of 
this  disposition  of  parents  in  another  place.  The 
requisite  qualifications  of  teachers  are  the  subjects 
now  before  us. 

In  the  first  place  I  will  mention  some  of  the  de- 
ficiencies of  common  school-teachers  ;  and  in  the 
second  place  some  of  the  qualifications  which  their 
office  requires.  I  hope  that  I  shall  be  excused  for 
being  plain  ;  the  good  of  all  demands  that  I  should 
be  so.* 

The  people  of  the  United  States  employ,  annu- 
ally, at  least  eighty  thousand  common-school  in- 
structers.  There  are  in  the  twenty -four  states  not 
less  than  eighty  thousand  common  schools,  (we  do 
not  include  the  higher  schools.) 

Among  these  eighty  thousand  teachers,  but  a  very 

*  The  schoolmaster  who,  from  indolence,  carelessness,  or 
bad  disposition,  neglects  his  occupation,  instructs  badly,  or 
uses  his  power  without  discernment,  shall  be  admonished  first 
by  the  inspector  of  the  school,  and  then  by  the  inspector  of  the 
circle.  If  he  does  not  amend,  he  shall  be  reported  to  the 
provincial  authorities,  who,  on  sufficient  evidence,  shall  im- 
pose, amongst  other  penalties,  and  according  to  the  income 
of  the  delinquent,  progressive  pecuniary  fines,  which  shall 
be  added  to  the  funds  of  the  school.  If  reprimands,  threats, 
and  punishments  have  no  effect,  his  employment  shall  be 
taken  from  him. — Cousbi^s  Report. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  37 

few  have  made  any  preparation  for  their  duties  ;  the 
most  of  them  accidentally  assume  this  office  as  a 
temporary  employment.  They  seek  it  to  fill  up  a 
vacant  month  or  two,  when  they  expect  something 
else  will  offer  fat*  more  lucrative  and  suitable  to  their 
wishes.  ••  ' 

Many  teach  for  a  short  time,  that  they  may  ob- 
tain a  little  morfey  to  assist  them  in  a  higher  course 
of  studies  which  they  have  commenced  ;*  others 
make  the  business  a  mere  stepping-stone  to  something 
which  they  consider  far  more  honourable;  and  some 
become  schoolmasters  because  their  health  will  not 
sustain  an  exposure  to  out-door  w^eather,  or,  what 
is  more  freqjyiftillly  the  case,  because  they  suppose 
the  labours  of  a  teacher  are  not  as  rough  and  ardu- 
ous as  the  winter-labours  of  a  farm. 

Having  becoitie  teachers  from  motives  like  these, 
they  have  not  thought  of  the  responsibilities  of  their 
office  ;  they  see  not  the  fearful  and  momentous  re- 
lations which  they  hold  to  the  immortal  souls  com- 
mitted to  their  <care;  and  can  they  discharge  their 
duties  faithfully  and  conscientiously,  when  ignorant 
of  what  they  are  doing  ?  They  intend  to  teach  but 
a  short  time, and  therefore  care  nothing  about  making 
improvements  in  their  method  of  instruction,  or  of 
becoming  better  qualified  for  their  business. 

They  know  that  the  unpleasant  occupation  will 
soon  cease,  and  Uiey  do  not  wish  to  task  their  minds 
with  it  any  moj^Lhan  is  absolutely  necessary.  They 
probably  hav^i^pve  for  the  society  of  children, 
and  in  many^^^^Bave  a  decided  dislike  to  any  in- 
tercourse wim^Ri.     They  have  associated  with 


*  The  Germans  give,  as  an  instance  of  the  low  state  of  pri- 
mary education  in^oyal  Saxony,  (the  case  is  very  different 
in  the  dutchies,)  tJBil  the  places  of  schoohnasters  are  there 
commonly  filled  by  jmere  candidates  of  theology.  In  Scotland 
we  should  think  this  qualification  very  high. — Preface  to 
Cuusbi's  Report.       \  D 


38  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

children  but  little,  and  are  ignorant  of  the  manner 
in  which  they  learn.  They  know  not  how  to  sym- 
pathize with  children,  or  how  to  please  or  interest 
them  ;  and  they  hope  soon  to  be  free  from  their 
stupidity  and  vexation,  and  shun  all  present  inter- 
course as  much  as  possible.  •• 

Many,  not  being  able  to  discriminate  between  the 
different  characters  of  their  pupils,  have  one  un- 
changing treatment  for  all :  these  meet  with  diffi- 
culties in  pleasing  the  parents,  or  in  governing  the 
larger  scholars,  and  then  threaten,  stamp,  scold,  and 
whip,  and  conclude  by  losing  all  government  over 
themselves.  They  have  no  system,  and  nothing 
comes  in  the  right  time  or  place  ;  «very  thing  is  in 
confusion  ;  eight  or  ten  noisy  scholai's  vociferating 
for  some  privilege  or  information  at  the  same  time. 

This  throws  them  into  a  passion,  and  they  sputter 
about  without  accomplishing  any  thing,  or  producing 
any  order.  Their  patience  is  soon  lost,  and  the 
irritability  of  their  temper  is  worked  off  on  some 
unlucky  urchin  who  happens  to  be  in  the  direction 
of  their  wrath. 

What  I  have  said  is  not  from  the  imagination.  I 
have  seen  many  such  scenes  ;  and  so,  either  with 
high  glee  or  trembling  fear,  has  many  a  schcol-boy. 
Many,  many  instructors  also  are  ignorant  of  what 
they  are  expected  to  teach  ;  they  became  teachers 
that  they  might  learn, — not  to  teach  others.  Many 
take  this  office  that  they  may  acquire  that  know- 
ledge which  they  now  begin  to  feeDflS^want  of,  but 
which  was  regarded  as  useless  wl^^^^v  idled  away 
their  school-days.  ^^^H 

They  feel  the  necessity  of  becommgthe  learner; 
but  to  save  the  profession  of  ignorance,  and  the  dis- 
grace of  their  advanced  age,  they  assume  the  name 
and  office  of  instructer.  .  Their  labour  to  acquire 
knowledge  prevents  them  from  attending  to  the 
children.     The  teacher's  attainments  are  suspected. 


•-% 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  3.9 

and  being  measured  by  the  acquisitions  of  some  of 
the  more  advanced  scholars,  they  are  frequently  seen 
to  suffer  from  the  comparison  ;  this  makes  the 
teacher  either  embarrassed  or  arrogant,  and  there- 
fore impatient  or  techy. 

These  are  some  of  the  defects  of  many  of  our 
common  school  teachers.  Much  more  might  be  said 
in  the  way  of  finding  fault,  but  I  have  neither  space 
nor  inclination  to  pursue  this  unpleasant  task.  One 
mend-fault  is  worth  ten  find-faults,  all  the  world 
over.  I  will  now,  in  the  second  place,  mention 
some  of  the  qualifications  which  every  teacher  should 
have  ;  and  from  these,  others,  which  I  may  not 
notice,  may  be  inferred. 

In  the  first  place,  teachers  should  well  consider 
the  nature  of  their  business.  You  are  now  acting 
upon  mind — mind  that  is  young  and  flexible.  Your 
example,  your  opinions,  your  address,  are  to  form 
in  your  pupils  such  characters  as  will  make  them 
either  useful  and  happy,  or  useless  and  miserable. 
You  are  acting  upon  minds  which  will  act  upon 
other  minds,  and  your  whole  influence  will  go  to- 
wards the  formation  of  the  cliaracter  of  society. 
You  should,  then,  consider  well  the  nature  of  your 
business.  You  should  examine  j^ourselves,  and  see 
if  you  are  prepared  for  an  office  at  once  so  honour- 
able, influential,  and  responsible. 

It  will  be  necessary  for  you  to  examine  your  ac- 
quirements, for  you  should  thoroughly  understand 
the  branches  you  will  be  expected  to  teach.*  The 
improvement  of  the  scholars  is  your  whole  duty. 

*  Let  solidity,  rather  than  extent,  be  aimed  at  in  the  course 
of  instruction.  The  yonni^  masters  must  know  a  few  things 
fundamentally,  rather  than  many  things  superfinially.  The 
steady  continuous  labour  which  must  be  gone  through  to 
know  any  thing,  whatsoever,  thoroughly,  is  an  admirable  dis- 
cipUne  for  the  mind.  Besides,  nothing  is  so  prolific  as  one 
thing  well  known ;  it  is  an  excellent  starting  point  for  a 
thousand  others. — Cousin's  Report. 


40  DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  ; 

You  cannot,  while  an  instructer,  attend  to  the  im- 
provement of  yourself,  especially  in  those  branches 
of  knowledge  which  you  are  teaching  your  scholars. 
You  cannot  give  what  you  have  not ;  and  you  will 
not  be  able  to  teach  others;  unless  you  have  first 
learned  yourself.  Before  you  commence  the  duties 
of  instructing,  you  should  have  a  thorough  know- 
ledge of  the  studies  usually  pursued  in  common 
schools. 

You  should  be  a  good  reader.  The  grace, 
beauty,  and  expression  of  this  art  aannot  be  taught 
by  oratorical  rules,  nor  by  the  machinery  of  punc- 
tuation. The  feeling,  and  the  force  of  reading,  your 
pupils  must  learn  from  your  example.  By  reading 
with  that  tone  of  voice  which  the  sentiment  de- 
mands, and  with  correct  emphasis,  you  will  be  able 
to  make  a  passage  intelligible  to  your  younger  pupils, 
which  you  could  not  do  by  verbal  definition  or  in- 
genious illustration. 

To  read  well,  is  to  produce  all  the  effect  the  sen- 
timent is  capable  of  doing.  It  is  not,  as  many 
teachers  would  lead  their  scholars:  to  suppose,  the 
punctilious  observance  of  pauses,  the  certain  rise  and 
fall  of  voice  at  the  commencement  and  termination 
of  every  period,  the  continuous  loud  explosions  of 
the  high  tones,  or  all  these,  that  make  agreeable  or 
affecting  reading.  Yet  we  would  tliink  that  many 
teachers  supposed  it  was,  from  the  manner  they 
permit  or  teach  their  scholars  to  read. 

How  many  disagreeable,  powerless  readers,  either 
from  the  carelessness  or  the  ignorance  of  teachers! 
Teachers  should  perceive  that  punctuation  is  entirely 
artificial,  and  t^iat  it  is  impossible  for  it  to  graduate  . 
the  reading;  as  the  sense  would  direct.  You  should 
practically  believe,  that  nothing  'can  make  your 
scholars  read  well  but  a  full  understanding,  and  a 
deep,  adequate  feeling,  of  what  they  utter.  You 
should  be  able  to  convince  them  of  this  by  your  own 


*  DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  41 

correct,  impressive  reading.  By  your  own  readins;, 
compel  their  minds  to  know,  and  believe,  that  a 
book  has  ideas, — that  it  contains  something  which 
they  do  not  know,  but  which  they  may  comprehend, 
and  make  their  own. 

Your  scholars,  from  the  manner  they  are  taught, 
suppose  that  reading  well  consists  in  nothing  else 
than  in  correctness  and  facility  in  pronouncing  words. 
The  meaning  they  do  not  get  themselves,  nor  do 
they  pretend  to  give  it  to  others.  Now,  you  should 
correct  this  ;  you  should  read  as  if  your  mind  saw 
something,  and  as  if  you  wished  to  show  it  to  them — 
as  if  their  minds  -were  to  attend  to  the  thought,  and 
not  to  the  words,  and  stops,  and  manner. 

Show  them  that  the  same  sentiment  may  produce 
a  variety  of  dissimilar  ideas  and  feelings,  according 
to  the  way  in  which  it  is  read  ;  and  at  all  times,  pro- 
duce in  them  the  conviction  that  good  reading  is  to 
make  the  hearers  feel  and  perceive  all  that  the 
author  felt  and  perceived.  Now,  unless  you  read 
well  yourself,  you  will  not  be  able  to  teach  your 
pupils  to  read  in^this  manner. 

If  you  read  with  an  unnatural  tone,  with  fiilse 
emphasis  and  cadence,  without  distinct  articulation, 
without  intending  to  communicate  any  meaning,  or 
with  bad  pronunciation,  or  with  hesitation,  or  stam- 
mering, or  indistinct  rapidity,  or  in  a  careless,  awk- 
ward position  and  manner,  your  scholars  will  do  the 
same:  and  on  the  other  hand,  if  you  read  with  grace, 
with  feeling,  with  intelligence,  and  with  a  voice 
pitched  in  harmony  with  the  sense,  your  scholars 
will  be  likely  to  read  in  the  same  style. 

After  all  your  instruction,  and  with  the  help  of  all 
the  rules  they  can  learn,  your  pupils  will  be  sure  to 
get  into  bad  habits,  unless  your  own  example  of  good 
reading  prevents  them.  I  would  say  it  then,  again, 
let  every  teacher  be  a  good  reader. 

I  have  dwelt  at  some  length  on  this  qualification 
d2 


42  DISTRICT    SCHOOL.- 


in  a  teacher,  from  its  vast  importance.  A  child,  or 
a  youth,  is  liable  at  all  times  to  be  called  upon  to 
read  ;  it  is  a  little  service,  which  all  in  good  courtesy 
expect  from  each  other,  and  we  may  be  asked  to 
render  it  by  the  family  fireside,  or  in  the  drawing- 
room;  in  the  private  circle,  or  at  the  public  meeting; 
at  all  times,  and  in  every  variety  of  circumstances ; 
now,  to  amuse  the  cheerful,  and  now  to  instruct  the 
thoughtful;  now,  before  the  learned,  and  now  before 
the  unlearned.  Then,  let  what  is  always  expected, 
and  may  be  called  for  at  any  time,  have  every  at- 
tention from  the  teacher,  and  the  highest  regard  from 
the  scholar.  •* 

A  teacher  should  be  a  good  penman.  He  should 
write  a  round,  smooth,  free  hand,  yet  one  that  is 
bold  and  rapid.  You  may  compel  the  scholars  to 
hold  the  pen  correctly — you  may  keep  them  in  a 
proper  position — you  may  enforce  a  good  degree  of 
attention  to  their  pen  and  marks  ;  but  after  all  this, 
unless  you  can  present  them  a  good  copy  for  imita- 
tion, your  labours  will  be  in  vain.  It  is  not  by  being 
told  what  is  good,  but  it  is  by  seeing  it,  that  will 
make  scholars  improve  in  writing ;  or  in  almost 
any  thing  else.  Then,  to  be  a  teacher,  you  should 
be  a  good  penman,  and  know  how  to  make  others 
excel  you. 

You  should  be  ready  and  accurate  in  the  science 
of  arithmetic.  Your  ability  to  make  the  scholars 
perform  the  most  obvious  examples,  or  understand 
the  most  simple  rule,  will  be  in  proportion  to  the 
knowledge  you  have  of  the  whole  science.  You  can- 
not be  an  instructive  teacher,  one  that  will  make  the 
thing  simple  and  easy,  except  you  have  studied  the 
science  sufficiently  to  see  something  of  its  nature  and 
application.  In  the  science  of  numbers  and  quantity, 
each  step  teaches  and  illustrates  the  succeeding  step. 

A  man  should  be  a  good  arithmetician  to  be  a  good 
teacher  even  in  the  simple  rule  of  addition.     You 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  43 

should  be  so  familiar  with  this  science,  that  you  will 
know  how  the  mind  acquires  this  knowledge.  You 
should  be  able  to  perceive  at  once,  whether  or  not 
the  pupil  understands  the  rules  of  the  book,  or  your 
own  instructions.  You  should  know  when  the  pupil 
can  help  himself,  and  also  when  he  needs  help. 

You  should  be  able  to  show  the  reasons  for  the 
rules ;  and,  what  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  to  he 
able  to  make  a  practical  use  of  the  knowledge  that 
is  obtained  from  the  book,  and.  the  examj^lcs,  ivhich 
are  done  out  in  the  school-roo?n.  You  should  be 
able  to  bring  the  business  of  the  active  world  into 
the  exercises  of  the  school,  and  make  the  children 
apply  their  rules  and  knowledge  to  this  practical 
work.  Let  your  pupils  carry  the  same  arithmetic 
into  the  transactions  of  life  that  they  used  in  the 
school-room. 

Do  not  let  them  be  obliged  (as  they  are  in  many 
cases  at  present)  to  learn  a  practical  science  of  num- 
bers, after  they  have  uselessly  spent  years  in  trying 
to  understand  that  of  the  school-room.  If  you  have  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  you  can  make  the 
science  easy  and  practical  to  your  pupils ;  but  if  you 
are  ignorant  of  the  science,  the  stucly  of  it  will  be 
unpleasant  and  unintelligible  to  those  under  your 
dire'^-tion. 

You  should  be  familiar  with  geography.  The 
usual  manner  of  pursuing  this  study  is  this  :  the 
teacher  takes  the  book  or  the  map  in  his  hand,  and 
hears  the  pupil  recite  that  which  has  just  been  com- 
mitted to  memory,  without  annexing  any  remarks, 
to  assist  the  scholar  in  forming  a  true  conception  of 
the  object  or  place  which  the  lesson  has  described. 
From  the  want  of  proper  direction  and  suitable  il- 
lustrations, the  pupil  does  not  understand  the  nature 
of  the  study,  and  consequently  makes  it  a  mere  reci- 
tation from  the  memory,  as  if  it  was  moral  or  intel- 
lectual knowledge. 


44  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

The  teacher  should  be  able  to  show  the  use  of 
maps,  and  the  mode  in  which  they  represent  the 
earth  and  its  various  divisions,  natural  and  artificial. 
You  should  be  qualified  to  teach  the  pupils  the  art 
of  drawing  maps,  in  an  easy,  attractive  manner.  You 
should  be  familiar  with  every  part  of  the  study,  so 
that  you  may  direct  the  pupil's  search  after  any  place 
without  the  least  hesitation. 

It  is  frequently  the  case  that  teachers,  from  being 
strangers  to  the  study,  spend  a  large  portion  of  their 
school  hours  in  finding  places  for  the  class  in  geo- 
graphy; and  not  being  successful  in  their  blind  search, 
they  are  obliged  to  cover  their  ignorance  by  saying, 
that  "  the  place  is  not  put  down  on  the  map.'^ 

You  should  be  so  well  acquainted  with  this  de- 
lightful branch  of  knowledge,  as  to  be  able  to  give 
every  part  that  charm  and  interest  to  the  young  and 
inquiring  mind,  which  will  urge  it  on  with  an  in- 
creased desire  and  application.  If  you  are  well  ac- 
quainted with  geography,  this  may  be  done  ;  and 
unless  you  are,  learning  it  is  your  duty,  not  teach- 
ing it ;  and  it  is  not  a  proper  time  to  learn  when 
you  are  expected  to  instruct. 

You  should  have  a  thoi^ough  knowledge  of  the 
grammar  and  j)hilosophy  of  the  English  language. 
This  science  ismiserably  taught  in  our  district  schools, 
and  one  principal  reason  is,  a  large  number  of  the 
teachers  know  but  little  or  nothing  about  it ;  or,  at 
least,  about  the  best  method  of  teaching  it.  Your 
pupils  usually  have  a  great  dislike  to  grammar,  for 
they  see  neither  sense  nor  rhyme  in  it. 

You  require  them  to  commit  to  memory  a  set  of 
words  which  are  entirely  new  to  them, — a  string  of 
technical  terms,  which  neither  yourself  nor  the  book 
defines  ;  and  this  is  usually  the  amount  of  knowledge 
which  the  pupils  obtain.  The  time  that  is  uselessly 
spent  in  the  study  of  grammar  is  long  and  tedious. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  45 

The  benefit  which  the  scholars  derive  is  nothing,  or 
next  to  nothino;. 

The  whole  of  this  evil  arises  from  the  teacher's 
ignorance  of  the  science,  or  from  his  bad  method  of 
teaching  it.  Now  every  teacher  should  readily  and 
correctly  see  the  facts  and  phenomena  of  the  lan- 
guage ;  he  should  understand  its  genius  and  philoso- 
phy, and  be  intimate  with  its  forms  and  constructions. 
There  are  rules  and  principles  in  this  science,  which 
are  fixed  and  simple  ;  and  these  the  teacher  should 
perceive  distinctly,  and  be  able  to  apply  them  to 
whatever  form  the  language  may  present. 

The  most  simple  parts  of  this  science  should  be 
taught  first;  such  as  the  definition^of  the  several 
parts  of  speech.  These  definitions  the  teacher  must 
be  able  to  simplify  and  vary,  so  as  to  make  them  in- 
telligible to  the  scholars.  You  should  ascertain 
whether  they  understand  them,  by  requiring  the 
pupils  to  pick  out  the  thing  defined,  by  the  aid  of 
the  definition. 

That  a  teacher  should  be  a  good  grammarian  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  ;  for  we  should  value  that 
most  which  we  have  the  most  frequent  occasion  to 
use.  And  what  is  there  that  we  employ  so  often  as 
language  ?  All  must  use  it.  It  is  the  great  instru- 
ment by  whicli  mind  acts  upon  mind;  and  this  action 
will  be  faithful  or  unfaithful,  weak  or  powerful,  ac- 
cording to  the  perfection  or  imperfection  of  this 
instrument. 

What  part  of  human  learning  can  there  be,  then,  so 
desirable  as  a  thorough  knowledge  of  this  instrument 
by  which  mind  acts  upon  mind,  that  we  may  at  all 
times  make  the  best  possible  use  of  it.  Teachers 
should  make  the  grammar  of  the  language  an  inte- 
resting and  important  study  ;  but  before  they  can  do 
this,  they  must  be  well  versed  in  it  themsch^es. 
Again,  then,  we  would  say,  that  a  knowledge  of 
grammar,  an  acquaintance  with  the  philosophy  of  the 


46  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

language,  and  the  ability  to  teach  itj  are  essential 
qualifications  in  a  teacher. 

Teachers  shoukl  likewise  be  well  versed  in  history, 
especially  that  of  the  United  States.  This  will  quali- 
fy you  to  select  such  parts  as  will  be  useful  to  the 
scholars, and  to  present  to  their  minds  the  importance 
of  the  subject.  If  you  are  pleased  and  familiar  with 
history,  you  make  it  an  intensely  interesting  study 
in  your  school.  Every  American  youth  should 
know  the  history  and  present  condition  of  his  coun- 
try ;  but  more  especially  should  every  teacher  of 
American  youth.* 

But  you  may  be  well  acquainted  with  these  branch- 
es, and  yet  not'prepared  to  teach.  There  are  many 
things  absolutely  necessary  for  a  teacher  besides 
knowledge.  To  teach  is  to  impart  knowledge  to 
others  ;  and  you  need  the  power  of  irnj^arting  as 
much  as  you  do  the  knowledge  itself.  A  teacher 
should  be  able  to  communicate  his  ideas  to  others 
with  ease  and  perspicuity.  Your  success  will  de- 
pend in  a  great  measure  on  this  power ;  if  you  have 
it  not,  all  the  learning  of  the  ancients  and  moderns 
will  not  fit  you  for  a  teacher. 

Yet  you  should  remember  that  this  faculty  of 
communicating  to  others  what  we  know  is  mostly 
an  acquired  one,  and  may  be  had,  to  a  great  degree, 
by  all  who  seek  it.  This  qualification,  which  is  of 
such  immense  importance,  is  possessed  but  by  a  very 
few  teachers.  There  are  many  more  of  those  who 
have  the  necessary  knowledge,  than  of  those  who 
have  the  capabilities  to  teach  it. 

The  power  of  telling  what  they  have  heard  or  have 

*  The  common  school  teacher  should  also  be  well  acquaint- 
ed with  drawing,  book-keeping,  geometry,  trigonometry,  men- 
suration, and  surveying;  natural  philosophy,  and  the  elements 
of  astronomy ;  chemistry,  and  mineralogy  ;  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States,  the  duties  of  public  officers,  and  moral  and 
intellectual  philosophy. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  47 

been  reading,  the  faculty  of  communicating  their 
ideas  to  others  in  an  easy,  clear,  perspicuous  manner, 
but  very  few  have,  whether  educated  in  the  district 
school,  the  college,  or  the  professional  seminary. 
This  great  defect  (worse,  I  was  about  to  say,  than 
ignorance  itself,  for  it  makes  us  assume  the  appear- 
ance of  being  very  learned,  when  in  reality  we  can 
think  or  tell  but  very  little)  proceeds  from  the  bad 
systems  of  instruction. 

Teachers,  with  other  students,  are  made  mere 
reservoirs,  into  which  a  little  learning  is  poured, 
but  from  which  there  is  no  outlet;  or  if  there  should 
be  one,  it  is  not  a  pure  flowing  stream,  but  an  ill- 
seeming,  struggling  leak.  The  little  that  oozes  out 
is  a  disgrace  to  the  fountain,  and  a  disappointment 
to  reasonable  expectations.  We  should  make  the 
knowledge  which  we  merely  look  at,  and  pass  by, 
a  part  of  our  own  minds;  it  should  be  incorporated 
with,  and  become  a  part  of  our  intellectual  existence. 

Then,  if  we  have  the  organs  of  speech,  and  a 
motive,  there  will  be  neither  hesitation,  nor  stam- 
mering, nor  circumlocution,  nor  words  without 
meaning.  If  we  have  an  idea,  we  can  impart  it. 
We  deceive  ourselves  when  we  apologize  for  our 
faulty  expressions,  by  saying,  "  I  know  well  enough, 
but  I  can't  tell  it."  The  fact  is,  we  do  not  know; 
if  we  did,  there  never  would  be  an  occasion  for  such 
an  apology.  Now  it  will  not  do  for  teachers  to 
make  this  confession  to  their  pupils,  and  therefore 
they  are  obliged  to  say  something  ;  but  you  should 
know  that  it  is  easy  to  talk  about  evc7^y  thing  and 
yet  say  nothing. 

There  is  no  class  of  men  in  society  who  need 
this  faculty  of  communicating  knowledge  so  much 
as  teachers ;  especially  common  school  teachers. 
They  are  acting  upon  minds  which  are  extremely 
limited  ;  having  but  a  very  few  ideas,  and  almost 
entirely  unacquainted  with  the  relations  of  things. 


43  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

They  cannot  get  the  meaning  by  hints,  and  infer- 
ences, and  equivocal,  half-expressions,  as  more  ma- 
ture minds  may  do  by  close  attention,  and  with  some 
knowledge  of  the  speaker's  phraseology. 

No,  you  must  speak  the  whole  of  it  to  children, 
with  nothing  more  nor  less,  and  in  their  own  idiom. 
In  an  audience  of  children,  you  have  not  intelli- 
gent minds  to  siipphj  the  ivant  of  intelligence; 
all  that  is  perceived  by  them  7?ntst  be  contained 
in  the  teacher^s  communication.  It  will  now  be 
acknowledged  that  teachers,  more  than  any  other 
class  of  men,  need  the  faculty  of  transferring  into 
other  minds  what  may  be  worthy  of  existing  in  their 
own. 

A  teacher  should  make  it  his  unceasing  study  to 
acquire  this  power.  He  may  obtain  it  by  practice. 
If  he  will  arrange  his  ideas,  and  connect  them  with 
proper  words,  and  frequently  express  them,  he  will 
soon  acquire  the  ability.  And  it  will  make  a  new 
man  of  any  one  ;  he  will  then  feel  and  know  his 
strength* 

*  Says  Francis  Leiber,  LL.I).,  in  his  Girard  Report, — a 
work  of  great  merit,  and  one  that  shows  this  distinguislie  1 
gentleman  to  be  well  acquainted  with  the  principles  and  prac- 
tice of  education, — "We  speak  a  hundred  times  before  we 
write  once,  and  though  exercises,  which  perfect  us  in  writing 
correctly  and  tastefully,  cultivate  also,  in  a  degree,  our  speak- 
in?^?  yet  there  remains  a  vast  difference  between  the  free  and 
cultivated  use  of  the  '  breathing  word,'  and  that  of  the  pen ; 
it  has,  therefore,  always  appeared  to  me,  that  the  art  of  speak- 
ing well,  not  only  on  solemn  occasions,  by  way  of  oratory, 
but  on  all  the  many  occasions  created  by  the  intercourse  of 
men,  ought  to  form  a  predominant  object  in  every  sound  edu- 
cation. 

"  A  person  may  write  correctly  and  concisely,  may  express 
his  ideas  in  a  perspicuous  and  pleasing  order  on  paper,  and 
yet  be  unfit  to  relate  properly  even  a  short  anecdote.  That 
this  art  of  speaking  well  is  important  every  where,  will  be 
denied  by  no  one,  as  soon  as  attention  is  directed  to  the 
subject;  but  in  a  country  like  ours,  where  so  much  business 
is  transacted,  so  many  affairs  are  treated  in  an  oral  way,  Lt 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  49 


SECTION  III. 


QUALIFICATIONS    OF    TEACHERS    CONTINUED. 

A  TEACHER,  besides  possessing  the  requisite  at- 
tainments, and  the  ability  of  communicating  them 
to  others,  should  have  a  good  moral  character. 
His   morals  will   be    the    standard    by  which    the 

becomes  peculiarly  important.  It  would  be  the  soundest,  and 
in  my  opinion,  the  only  preparation  for  the  art  of  debating, 
and  rhetoric  in  general. 

"  In  Asia  the  art  of  relating  is  actually  taught,  and  we  ought 
not  to  hesitate  to  adopt  whatever  is  good,  even  from  that 
quarter.  So  much  is  the  art  neglected  with  Europeans  and 
their  descendants,  that  I  find  in  the  regulations  of  a  large 
orphan  asylum  in  Berlin,  the  prescription,  that  the  boys  should 
be  taught  lo  do  errands  well. 

"  Strange  as  this  may  seem,  who  has  not  had  manifold  op- 
portunities of  observing  that  even  this  low  degree  of  the  art 
of  expressing  is  rarely  well  understood  \  Were  the  art  of 
expressing  ourselves  generally  considered  as  indispensable,  it 
would  not  have  been  necessary  to  single  out  this  humble  part 
of  it.  Let  us  observe,  farther,  how  few  persons  are  able  to 
relate  clearly  and  agreeably  a  simple  incident,  or  every-day 
occurrence,  to  converse  well,  to  give  testimony  in  a  court,  &c. 

"I  have  given  my  views  on  this  subject  fully,  in  an  article 
on  conversation.,  which  I  wrote  for  the  Encyclopaedia  Ameri- 
canse.  As  a  good  handwriting  is  accessary,  but  not  unessen- 
tial to  the  act  of  expressing  ourselves  in  writing,  so  is  a  correct 
and  pleasing  pronunciation,  and  a  well  modulated  voice  no 
unimportant  accessary  to  the  art  of  expressing  ourselves 
orally  :  in  fact,  however  desirable  a  good  handwriting  may 
be,  and  I  consider  it  of  no  mean  importance,  a  fine  enunciation 
is  more  so. 

"  Social  intercourse  has,  in  the  natural  course  of  civiliza- 
tion, become  an  important  ingredient  of  our  whole  life,  and 
social  life  consists  chiefly  in  oral  communication.  Should  we 
not  cultivate  this  main  basis  of  intercourse  %  A  proper  educa- 
tion in  this  branch  must  begin  quite  early ;  it  ought  indeed 
to  be  one  of  the  first  subjects  of  education. 
E 


50  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

scholars  will  compare  and  regulate  theirs.  His  con- 
duct and  deportment  will  be  constantly  before  them; 
and  from  the  respect  he  ought  to  have  from  his  pu- 
pils, his  life  will  be  the  model  which  they  will  imi- 
tate. The  teacher's  sentiments,  opinions,  and  even 
manners,  will  insensibly  become  the  sentiments, 
opinions,  and  manners  of  the  scholars.  They  will 
feel  a  full  license  to  do  whatever  the  teacher  does. 

His  actions  will  be  appealed  to  as  a  justification 
of  their  own  ;  and  whatever  the  teacher  considers 
right  or  wrong,  will  be  considered  as  right  or  wrong 
by  the  scholars.  The  teacher's  actions  arc  under 
the  eye  of  the  children,  and  his  mind,  thoughts,  and 
feelings  by  the  side  of  theirs,  more  than  any  other 
individual's  ;  whatever  he  may  be,  he  will  be  sure 
to  stamp  his  likeness  with  more  or  less  faithfulness 
upon  the  minds  of  every  one  of  his  pupils. 

A  teacher  may,  and  generally  will,  mould  the 
conformable,  imitative  mind  of  the  child  into  his 
own  image.  To  a  great  extent  our  teachers  give 
us  our  character.  If  this  be  so  (and  we  think  no 
one  will  doubt  it  who  has  either  observed   or   re- 

"To  write  and  speak,  or,  in  one  word,  to  express  ourselves 
concisely,  may  well  be  called  the  flower  of  the  art  of  expres- 
sion, which,  as  it  is  so  little  cultivated  with  us,  requires  par- 
ticular attention ;  it  is  an  accomplishment  which  few  as  yet 
seem  to  acknowledge  at  all,  and  as  our  numerous  daily  and 
weekly  papers  offer  a  ready  receptacle  for  unmeasured  political 
papers,  so  that  necessity  does  not  obligre  us  to  resort  to  con- 
ciseness,— which  forms  an  essential  quality,  for  instance,  of  an 
officer's  report  in  the  field, — we  must  cultivate  it  early  with  the 
rising  generation,  lest  the  greatest  part  of  our  people  should 
be  debarred  from  obtaining  sound  and  necessary  political  in- 
formation, by  the  very  abundance  of  public  statements. 

"This  excess  has  rapidly  increased  of  late,  and  what  man 
of  business  can  any  longer  keep  pace  with  all  the  reports  and 
messages  ]  Hence  they  miss  so  often  their  aim.  Let  our 
pupils  learn  their  style  from  the  commentaries  of  Caesar,  rather 
than  from  the  history  of  Clarendon  ;  from  the  precise  language 
of  a  Livingston,  rather  than  imitate  what  might  be  called  state 
message  style." 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  51 

fleeted),  what  is  more  important  than  a  good  moral 
character  in  a  teacher  ! 

Parents,  if  such  a  character  is  of  any  importance 
in  your  children,  it  is  of  just  as  much  importance 
in  their  teachers.  You  must  expect  to  see  in  your 
children  the  same  virtues  or  vices,  and  particularly 
the  latter  (for  the  young,  as  well  as  those  who  are 
older,  copy  the  evil  of  others  with  much  more  readi- 
ness and  faithfulness  than  they  do  the  good),  taking 
root,  and  springing  up  into  action  that  you  see  in 
their  teacher.  And,  respected  instructer,  if  you 
feel  (and  you  should  understand  this  matter)  that 
your  doctrines  and  practice  are  not  right,  oh,  think 
of  the  consequences  of  your  unhappy  influence  ! 

A  teacher  should  govern  himself.  In  this  con- 
sists the  great  art  of  governing  others.  We  lose  all 
authority  over  others  when  we  lose  command  of 
ourselves.  The  disloyalty  of  our  passions  requires 
a  closer  inspection  and  a  stronger  guard  than  any 
official  government  :  and  to  rule  your  own  spirit 
you  will  find  much  more  difficult  than  the  control 
of  otlTers.  You  will  meet  with  many  things  which 
are  keenly  provocative ;  but  always  keep  a  close 
watch  over  yourself,  and  let  nothing  throw  you  off 
from  your  guard  :  let  your  jxidgrtient  advise  and 
control  all  your  actions. 

If  you  will  govern  yourself,  you  will  have  a  good 
government  in  your  school.  I  never  knew  a  teacher 
who  was  troubled  in  managing  his  scholars,  that  did 
not  first  lose  the  government  of  himself.  These 
rebellious  school  farces,  where  teacher  and  scholar 
try  their  strength  for  mastery,  commence  from  some 
weakness  or  indiscretion  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
*fi  man  having  the  strength  of  law  and  right, 
and  a  perfect  command,  of  himself  will  have 
his  authority  acknowledged,  and  his  governm,ent 
respected. 

There  is  no  employment  where  the  aid  of  a  good 


52  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

judgment  is  more  essential  than  in  the  teachers ;  I 
mean  the  teacher  of  a  common  school.  In  all  our 
incorporated  academies,  colleges,  and  seminaries, 
there  are  laws  prescribing  the  duties  of  the  instruct- 
ors and  the  conduct  of  the  pupils.  These  laws  are 
drawn  up  by  learned,  experienced  men ;  men  who 
are  not  local,  acting  officers  of  the  institution,  but 
warm  friends  and  general  supervisors.  The  instruct- 
ors are  directed  by  these  laws,  and  require  their 
obedience  from  the  students. 

Now,  there  is  no  such  supervision  from  the  ex- 
perienced and  learned  over  the  common  school  and 
its  teacher  ;  the  instructors  in  these  schools  are  their 
own  legislators,  judicative,  and  executive  ;  they  pub- 
lish their  own  laws  to  the  colony,  and  they  accuse, 
pass  sentence,  and  punish. 

The  professors  of  a  college  are  not  allowed  to  make 
their  laws — they  are  not  permitted  to  punish  in  case 
of  violation,  but  are  obliged  to  report  the  offender 
and  the  offence  to  the  president  or  the  board  of 
managers ;  they  are  neither  legislative,  judicative, nor 
executive  :  but  why  ?  because  they  are  not  as  fit  for 
these  offices  as  common  school  teachers  ?  This  cer- 
tainly is  not  the  reason.  Is  it  because  the  laws  of  a 
college  are  more  numerous  and  difficult  ?  Is  it  be- 
cause the  government  of  the  educated  is  more  dif- 
ficult than  the  government  of  the  uneducated  ?  Cer- 
tainly not. 

The  rules  and  regulations  of  a  primary  or  district 
school  are  as  important  (and  require  more  ingenuity 
in  adapting  them  to  the  young  minds  and  restless 
bodies  of  the  children)  as  the  laws  of  a  college;  and 
the  pupils  of  a  district  school  having  usually  lived 
without  rule  and  restraint,  are  certainly  less  prepared 
to  perceive  what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong,  and 
consequently  must  be  more  controlled  by  the  rules 
and  regulations  of  the  institution  ? 

Why,  then,  is   this   department   of  government 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  53 

taken  away  from  professors?  The  reason  is,  because 
it  is  much  better  to  have  it  in  the  hands  of  others, 
or,  in  other  words,  to  have  the  assistance,  counsel, 
and  advice  of  others'  experience  and  learning.  But 
the  common  school  teacher  has  all  the  professor's 
difficulties  and  labours,  yet  none  of  his  aids  ;  neither 
in  the  form  of  wise  directions,  drawn  up  by  others, 
nor  in  the  judiciary  of  wise,  experienced  supervisors. 

The  common  school  teacher  is  left  alone:  his  will 
the  law ;  his  nod  the  sentence  ;  and  his  arm  the  exe- 
cutioner. Say,  then,  does  not  a  common  school 
teacher  need  di  good  judgment  ?  it  is  the  only  thing 
that  will  ensure  justice  ;  it  is  the  only  restraint  which 
ignorance,  and  rashness,  and  cruelty  have.  The 
teacher  has  no  other  aid  for  discovering  guilt  and  for 
prescribing  punishment  ;  the  judgment  is  the  only 
thing  that  directs  unlimited  power  ;  and  if  this  is 
wanting,  where  can  we  look  for  a  greater  tyrant  than 
the  common  school  teacher  may  become  ? 

A  teacher  should  have  an  even,  uniform  temper. 
Without  this  qualification,  there  will  be  at  one  time 
too  much  harshness  and  severity,  and  at  another  time 
too  much  playfulness  and  lenity.  Now  the  pupils 
will  fear  and  tremble  under  the  rage  of  passion,  and 
now  destroy  all  order  by  unbounded  liberties.  The 
teacher  should  always  be  mild,  calm,  and  collected — 
never  moved  or  excited  into  an  improper  state  of 
feeling,  but  always  serene  and  pleasant  before  his 
pupils  ;  and  at  all  other  times  if  possible. 

How  often  is  heard  the  admonitory  whisper, 
-'^Look  out,  the  master  is  cross  to-day;"  and  how 
often,  too,  do  the  scholars  take  the  advantage  of 
extreme  good-nature,  and  have  a  real  good  hour  of 
fun.  Scholars  watch  the  mercury  of  the  teacher's 
feelings  as  closely  as  they  do  his  eye  ;  and  they 
know  when  the  former  will  give  them  liberties  as  cer- 
tainly as  they  do  when  the  latter  will.  This  change- 
ableness  of  temper  is  attended  with  serious  evils. 
E  2 


54  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

If  a  pupil  is  punished,  he  will  think  that  it  hap- 
pened because  the  "  master  was  mad."  If  the  scho- 
lar is  accused  of  a  bad  recitation,  he  will  say,  "  The 
master  was  techy  enough  to-day,  and  dreadfully 
particular."  If  the  teacher  has  an  uneven  temper, 
the  scholar  will  be  sure,  whatever  may  be  his  defi- 
ciencies and  commissions,  to  justify  himself,  and  to 
make  the  teacher  the  cause  of  all  the  trouble.  For 
uniformity  of  obedience  in  the  school,  and  for  the 
teacher's  own  comfort,  an  even  uniform  temper  will 
always  be  necessary. 

A  teacher  should  have  decision  and  firmness. 
He  should  be  able  to  decide  upon  the  expediency  or 
inexpediency  of  the  act,  or  request,  and  then  remain 
firm  in  his  decision.  I  know  of  nothing  which  gives 
teachers  so  much  trouble  as  tliis  want  of  firmness. 
A  request  is  negatived,  but  close  importunity  gets 
an  affirmative.  This  the  scholars  understand ;  and 
they  know  that  a  denial  only  produces  a  short  delay, 
and  they  are  careful  to  give  the  teacher  no  peace,  till 
vexation  obtains  what  justice  refused. 

Children  are  full  of  whims  and  notions,  and  will 
always  be  seeking  permission  to  gratify  them  ;  and 
unless  the  teacher  has  firmness  to  set  them  aside  at 
once,  he  may  expect  to  be  constantly  annoyed.  Un- 
certainty respecting  the  teacher's  acquiescence  or 
refusal,  will  greatly  increase  the  restless  disposition 
of  children  ;  but  when  there  is  firmness  and  unifor- 
mity in  the  teacher,  the  pupils  can  determine  before- 
hand what  the  issue  would  be,  and  therefore  their 
requests  are  few  and  reasonable. 

I  know  of  nothing  that  throws  such  darkness  over 
the  line  which  separates  right  from  wrong,  as  this  de- 
viation and  mutability  in  the  teacher.  It  also  annuls 
all  the  teacher's  regulations ;  for  the  pupils  are  never 
certain  whether  they  will  be  enforced  or  not ;  and 
therefore  pay  little  or  no  regard  to  them.  An  uni- 
form, undeviating  government,  for  two  weeks,  would 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL  55 

establish  regulations  in  a  school  which  would,  always 
after,  without  any  inquiry,  regulate  the  conduct  and 
desires  of  the  scholars. 

But  without  this  stability  there  are  no  fixed,  known 
laws  to  guide  them,  and  the  pupils  are  continually 
applying  to  the  teacher.  If  the  teacher  will  decide 
on  his  government,  and  then  remain  firm,  he  will 
have  but  very  little  to  do  in  ruling ;  for  the  govern- 
ment of  a  previous  day  will  be  all  that  is  necessary 
for  the  present  one.* 

The  teacher  should  be  quaUJied  to  sympathize 
with  his  pupils.  He  should  be  able  to  feel  as  they 
feel,  and  to  think  as  they  think.  He  should  be  able 
to  put  his  head  and  his  heart  by  the  side  of  theirs, 
and  rejoice  and  labour  with  them.  There  should 
be  mutual  feeling  between  teacher  and  pupil,  and 
this  cannot  be  without  they  sympathize  with  each 
other.  There  should  be  such  a  sympathy  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  with  the  child's  feelings  and 
operations  of  mind,  that  he  will  be  able  to  take  the 
pupiPs  place,  and  stand  himself  a  learner  with  the 
scholar,  and  then  make  his  knowledge  the  teacher. 

It  is  known  that  children  learn  from  each  other 
with  much  more  readiness  and  facility  than  they  do 
from  adults.  The  reason  is,  the  one  who  instructs, 
adapts  himself  and  his  mode  of  teaching  to  the  state 
of  mind  in  the  learner.  If  teachers,  with  all  their  ad- 
vantage of  knowledge,  would  become  children  while 
instructing  children,  they  would  make  better  teachers 
than  the  pupils  could  select  from  their  own  number. 
But  adult  teachers  are  generally  so  unlike  children, — 
there  is  so  little  resemblance  between  them,  and  such 
a  broad  distinction  between  their  operations  of  mind 
and  feelings,  that  there  is  not  much  sympathy  for 

*  "When  order  has  once  been  thorouo;hly  established,  when 
the  will  of  each  has  learned  to  bend  to  the  unity  of  the  collec- 
tive body,  the  early  severity  may  be  relaxed,  and  give  place 
to  kindness  and  indulgence. — Coum%\i  Report. 


5G  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

each  other ;  and  less  fitness  in  the  instructions  of  the 
teacher  to  the  attainments  and  capacities  of  the 
scliolar. 

It  should  be  the  constant  aim  of  the  instructer  to 
place  himself  in  the  condition  of  his  pupils.  To  do 
this  he  must  cultivate  his  imaghiation  and  his  sym- 
pathetic emotions.  He  must  come  down  where  his 
pu])ils  are,  and  walk  in  the  twilight  with  them,  and 
feel  their  difficulties,  and  use  their  means  to  sur- 
mount them.  In  a  word,  he  must  be  the  teacher 
of  the  school,  and  yet  a  learner  and  a  member  of  each 
class. 

Who  is  there  that  needs  more  imagination  and 
sympathy  than  the  teacher  of  children  ?  Without  a 
large  portion  of  these,  who  can  be  a  good  teacher  ? 
To  find  out  what  children  know,  to  think  in  the 
manner  they  think,  and  to  feel  as  they  feel,  we  must 
listen  to  their  conversations  with  each  other ;  observe 
the  language  of  feeling  :  and  reflect  upon  the  accounts 
they  give  of  the  events  and  objects  they  have  wit- 
nessed. 

We  must  also  free  them  from  all  restraint,  and 
talk  with  them  about  the  things  in  their  world. 
We  must  be  their  citizens,  their  companions, — re- 
joice when  they  rejoice,  weep  when  they  weep,  and 
at  the  same  time  be  changing  them  from  darkness  to 
light ;  from  the  littleness  of  children  to  the  greatness 
of  men. 

A  teacher  should  be  able  to  discriTninate  charac- 
ter, and  see  the  mental  and  moral  dissimilarity  of 
his  pupils.  In  his  school  there  will  be  no  two  alike ; 
no  two  who  will  require  the  same  treatment,  or  the 
same  manner  of  instructing.  Hence  the  necessity 
of  discriminating,  that  he  may  adapt  himself  to  the 
individual  peculiarities  and  capacities  of  each.  This 
diversity  of  character  and  intelligence  arises  from  a 
different  physical  organization,  from  different  treat- 
ment and  instruction  when  at  home  with  their  com- 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  57 

panions  and  parents,  and  from  a  great  diversity  of 
other  causes  which  have  never  been  noticed. 

These  circumstances  make  each  individual  a  dif- 
ferent being  for  the  teacher  to  become  acquainted 
with.  It  is  true  that  all  children  have  many  things 
in  common  ;  yet  it  is  as  true  that  each  pupil  has 
something,  and  a  something  which  the  teacher 
must  understand,  that  is  unlike  any  other  indivi- 
dual. The  teacher's  business  is  not  so  much  to  in- 
quire into  the  causes  of  these  peculiarities,  as  it  is  to 
study  them.  There  is  as  great  a  variety  in  the 
minds  of  your  pupils,  as  there  is  in  their  faces ;  and, 
after  a  little  discrimination,  it  will  be  as  perceptible. 

Teachers  usually  have  but  one  government  for 
every  scholar  in  school.  The  timid,  sensitive  pupil 
receives  the  same  treatment  that  is  given  to  the  fear- 
less and  obdurate ;  the  dull  and  inattentive  the  same 
instruction  with  the  sprightly  and  diligent.  The 
child  that  should  be  won  with  tenderness  and  affec- 
tion, is  crushed  with  harshness  and  tyranny ;  and 
the  daringly  vicious  and  impertinent,  has  a  rein  no 
tighter  than  the  well-disposed  and  obedient. 

The  pupil  w^ho  is  without  restraint  at  home,  con- 
trolled neither  by  parents,  friends,  nor  conscience, 
the  teacher  attempts  to  govern  with  the  same  means 
which  should  be  used  over  those  who  arc  obedient 
to  their  parents,  and  generally  correct  in  their  con- 
duct. He  does  not  perceive  the  government  that 
is  necessary  for  the  scholar  in  school,  from  the  na- 
ture of  that  which  he  is  under  while  out. 

No  ;  it  often  happens  that  the  most  amiable  and 
the  most  unamiable,  the  obedient  and  the  disobe- 
dient, those  of  almost  intuitive  perceptions  and  the 
dull  and  the  stupid,  are  brought  under  the  same  form 
of  government,  and  the  same  method  of  instruction ! 
The  result  is,  that  the  teacher  finds  that  his  govern- 
ment and  punishments  do  not  answer  their  end,  and 
his  pupils   are   not   benefited   by  his   instructions. 


58  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

They  have  not  been  such  as  their  peculiar  disposi- 
tions and  capacities  required.  The  pupil,  who  with 
proper  management  would  have  been  an  excellent 
scholar,  is  now  marked  out  as  a  dunce ;  and  he,  who 
would  have  been  submissive  and  obedient,  is  now 
sent  from  school  as  irreclaimable. 

These  are  the  lamentable  consequences  of  not  dis- 
criminating character  and  mental  abilities.  0  how 
much  do  teachers  need  this  power !  Who  can  be 
a  fit  teacher  without  this  qualification!  Then,  let 
every  teacher  acquire  this  discriminating  power,  and 
use  it. 

A  teacher  should  be  able  to  illustrate  and  sim- 
plify. Many  of  the  elementary  books  which  have 
appeared  within  two  or  three  years  have  done  much 
to  make  the  studies  of  children  attractive  and  intel- 
ligible; yet  simple,  familiar  illustration  from  the 
teacher  is  required  in  every  step  of  the  scholar's 
progress. 

The  book  alone  will  be  of  little  value  to  the 
pupil ;  it  must  be  accompanied  with  the  living  voice; 
and  this  voice  should  create  an  understanding  be- 
tween the  child's  mind  and  the  book.  The  teacher 
should  illustrate  whatever  the  pupil  may  be  attend- 
ing to  in  a  variety  of  ways  ;  he  should  show  the 
connexion  which  the  lesson  has  to  other  branches 
of  knowledge,  and  he  should  be  able  to  apply  the 
instruction  to  the  objects  or  business  the  pupil  is 
acquainted  with. 

The  greatest  truth  may  be  made  level  with  the 
capacities  of  even  the  younger  pupils,  if  the  teacher 
is  apt  in  his  comparisons  and  illustrations :  the  most 
abstract  truth  may  be  invested  with  magical  attrac- 
tions, if  the  teacher  is  familiar  with  the  subject,  and 
sees  the  intimate  and  harmonious  relations  which 
run  through  all  the  living  and  visible  creation.  The 
same  truths  may  be  put  into  a  thousand  child-like 
forms,  yet  not   adulterated    nor   divested   of  their 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  59 

power ;  and  this  the  teacher  should  study  to  do  by 
a  beautiful  simplicity  in  his  language  and  ideas. 

By  luminous  illustrations  he  may  make  truth  as 
cheering  and  nourishing  to  the  soul  as  light  is  to  the 
eye,  or  the  "spirit-giving  air"  to  the  lungs;  he  may 
make  the  exercise  of  learning  something  new,  the 
most  delightful  employment  for  the  pupil  that  this 
world  will  ever  give.  0  why  is  it  that  children 
"go  tardily  to  school"?  Why  is  it  that  they  dis- 
like instruction  ?  They  were  made  to  know  and  to 
learn  from  others: — it  is  because  they  are  not  taught 
as  nature  teaches, — simply,  variedly,  pleasantly  : 
the  great  teacher  of  teachers  should  be  Nature: 
let  them  watch  her  pouring  light  and  truth  into  the 
infant  mind,  and  learn  a  lesson  which  no  other  can 
teach. 

Teachers  must  be  well  acquainted  with  the  studies 
before  they  possess  this  simplicity  :  the  most  learned 
men  are  always  the  most  simple  ;  the  half-educated 
are  those  who  make  a  pompous  parade  of  long  words 
and  intricate,  unmeaning  sentences.  The  man  who 
is  master  of  his  subject  is  plain,  pure,  and  perspicu- 
ous in  his  style,  and  always  luminous  and  eloquent 
-in  thought :  but  none  need  this  purity  and  simplicity 
of  language  and  thought  so  much  as  the  common 
school  instructor ;  he  is  in  a  mental  world,  which  is 
fresh  from  the  Creator,  and  with  narrow  boundaries; 
— he  is  where  the  world  with  all  its  duplicity  and 
error  has  not  yet  intruded  ;  he  is  in  that  young  and 
small  part  where  truth  and  simplicity  dwell  ;  and 
he  should  be  like  his  citizens. 

Oh !  it  has  made  my  heart  pity  human  weakness, 
to  see  a  conceited,  pompous,  arrogant  man,  the 
teacher  and  associate  of  children.  I  would  that 
such  might  learn  that  true  greatness  does  not  con- 
sist in  appearing  what  they  are  not ;  nor  in  their 
ridiculous  formality  and  magisterial  bearing.  The 
teacher,  from  always  being  the  oracle  of  his  society, 


60  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

is  very  apt  to  form  such  manners.  Let  me  say  to 
all  such,  seek  your  scholars'  respect  and  affection 
by  honesty,  simplicity,  and  truth ;  and  not  by  at- 
tempting the  "  unheard-of  and  the  wonderful.'' 


SECTION  IV. 

QUALIFICATIONS    OF    TEACHERS    CONCLUDED- 

Teachers  should  love  their  business.  To  suc- 
ceed in  any  art  or  profession,  we  must  give  to  it  all 
our  energies,  thoughts,  and  sympathies.  But  this 
we  will  not  do  except  we  love  this  art  or  profession. 
A  teacher  will  have  to  make  many  sacrifices ;  he 
will  meet  with  trying  difficulties,  and  he  will  have 
to  be  indefatigable  in  his  labours.  Now  unless  he 
loves  his  employment,  he  will  be  of  all  men  the 
most  miserable,  and  will,  as  soon  as  possible,  engage 
in  something  else. 

I  can  scarcely  conceive  of  a  more  unhappy  man 
than  a  district  school  teacher,  who  heartily  dislikes 
his  business  ;  and  I  know  not  of  a  more  useless  one. 
He  dreads  the  hour  when  he  will  be  obliged  to  meet 
his  thirty  or  forty  Cares  and  Troubles.  He  is 
wearied  with  impatience  for  the  moment  when  he 
can  send  them  from  him  ;  and  then  is  glad  the  task 
is  done.  But  the  morrow  presents  the  same  mise- 
rable prospect,  and  he  enters  upon  his  duties  loath- 
ingly,  and  with  sickness  of  heart. 

No  teacher  can  make  his  school  pleasant,  and  his 
scholars  contented  and  happy,  unless  he  loves  to 
teach.  If  he  is  restless  and  unhappy,  his  pupils  will 
be  so.  But  if  he  is  happy,  and  delighted  with 
teaching,  he  will  make  others  happy,  and  delighted 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  61 

with  learning.  If  he  has  a  glad  heart,  and  a  smiling 
countenance  when  he  meets  his  pupils  in  the  school- 
room, they  will  love  the  place,  and  rejoice  to  meet 
him  there. 

Teachers  should  make  their  business  their  study. 
This  will  be  necessary  if  they  wish  to  make  their 
profession  honourable,  and  themselves  respected  and 
useful.  You  cannot  do  justice  to  your  scholars, 
nor  to  your  employment,  without  devoting  to  them 
all  your  time  and  study.  They  demand  all  your 
resources  and  all  your  energies. 

You  should  be  constantly  inquiring  into  your 
own  deficiencies,  and  studying  the  characters  and 
dispositions  of  your  pupils  ;  you  should  keep  a 
close  eye  upon  their  progress ;  you  should  examine 
your  system  of  teaching,  and  your  form  of  govern- 
ment; and  you  should  be  continually  watching  to 
see  where  you  fall  short,  and  might  improve.  It 
should  be  your  study  to  know  how  children  learn, 
and  to  look  into  the  operations  of  the  developing 
mind.  You  should  desire  to  become  acquainted 
with  children  and  youth,  and  know  how  they  think, 
and  how  to  make  them  think. 

You  should  learn  their  history,  and  their  privi- 
leges and  government  out  of  school ;  and  at  all  times 
it  should  be  your  constant  aim  and  effort  to  under- 
stand your  business.  To  this  end,  you  should  seek 
the  society  and  experience  of  aged  teachers  ;  you 
should  possess  and  peruse  with  care,  the  books  and 
periodicals  which  throw  light  on  the  subject  of  edu- 
cation. At  the  present  day,  a  few  eminent  writers 
and  distinguished  instructers  are  devoting  their 
learning,  experience,  and  talents  to  the  improve- 
ment of  elementary  schools.  Your  library  should 
contain  their  works  ;  and  if  they  expose  evils,  and 
suggest  remedies,  you  should  see  the  former  and 
apply  the  latter. 

I  know  of  no  periodical  that  is  so  valuable  to  the 
F 


62  DISTRICT    SCHOOI.. 

teacher  as  the  "Annals  of  Education  and  Instruc- 
tion," published  at  Boston,  and  edited  by  William 
C.  Woodbridge.  This  work  is  the  organ  of  the 
"American  Lyceum,"  the  "American  Institute," 
and  the  "  American  School  Society."  The  object 
of  each  of  these  societies  is  the  diffusion  of  know- 
ledge, and  the  improvement  of  schools.  Mr.  Wood- 
bridge's  periodical,  then,  is  the  great  national  de- 
pository of  the  light  and  information  that  is  made 
known  on  the  subject  of  education. 

Mr.  Woodbridge  is  well  prepared  to  conduct  such 
a  national  work.  He  spent  several  years  in  Europe 
for  the  purpose  of  becoming  acquainted  with  her 
literary  institutions,  and  the  improvements  which 
had  been  made  in  their  systems  of  education.  After 
returning,  he  chose  the  "  Annals  of  Education"  as 
an  organ  through  which  he  might  make  known  the 
information  he  had  obtained  in  Europe,  and  the 
condition  and  improvements  of  the  schools  in  the 
United  States.  Every  teacher  and  friend  of  educa- 
tion should  avail  himself  of  the  aid  and  information 
which  this  work  affords. 

Books  and  periodicals  of  this  kind  should  be  the 
study  of  teachers.  You  should  know  the  state  of 
intelligence  in  your  own  country,  the  condition  and 
number  of  its  schools,  and  the  character  and  quali- 
fications of  their  teachers.  You  should  study  to  dis- 
tinguish between  a  change  and  an  improvement;  for 
every  change  is  by  no  means  a  reformation.  You 
should  be  so  familiar  with  your  profession  as  to  pre- 
vent impositions,  either  in  the  shape  of  books  or 
projected  systems.  You  should  study  the  human 
mind,  and  know  for  yourself  what  is  adapted  to  it, 
and  what  is  not ;  and  then  be  ready  to  admit  such 
suggestions  as  correspond  with  your  enlightened 
understanding. 

A  lawyer,  a  physician,  or  a  divine  has  to  spend 
several  years  in  preparing  for  the  practice  of  his 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  63 

profession ;  and  after  they  are  admitted,  or  licensed, 
they  must  make  their  profession  their  study,  if  they 
ever  attain  any  degree  of  eminence.  A  teacher's 
profession  is  the  most  difficult  of  the  four  ;  and  he 
should  avail  himself  of  all  the  help  he  can  get,  both 
from  the  studies  and  the  experience  of  others. 

Teachers  also  should  study  to  obtain  tlie  co-opera- 
tion of  parents  and  other  intelligent  individuals,  who 
may  reside  in  the  district,  or  within  the  circle  of 
their  acquaintance.  Make  the  learning  and  the  in- 
formation of  all  to  assist  you  in  your  difficult  pro- 
fession ;  study  to  make  improvements  in  the  art  of 
teaching,  and  give  yourself  up  entirely  to  your  pro- 
fession. You  see  there  is  enough  to  do,  enough  to 
occupy  all  your  time  and  all  your  powers  ;  then  let 
me  say  again,  make  your  business  your  study. 

Teachers  should  be /?«/zew/  and  jjci'sevcring.  I 
know  of  no  other  employment  in  which  these  quali- 
ties are  more  essential.  To  travel  with  the  young 
and  feeble  intellect,  with  all  its  obtuseness  and  way- 
wardness, requires  a  large  share  of  patience ;  but  if 
you  grow  impatient,  and  quicken  your  progress,  you 
will  leave  your  pupils  behind,  to  wander  without  a 
guide,  and  in  a  strange  country. 

No,  you  must  be  willing  to  take  as  short  steps  as 
they  take,  and  to  look  at  every  object  as  though  you 
never  saw  it  before  ;  you  must  be  willing  to  go  again 
and  again  where  you  have  gone  a  thousand  times  ; 
and  you  must  not  let  familiarity  make  you  indiffer- 
ent, but  you  must  preserve  all  the  freshness  and 
novelty  of  your  first  journey ;  for  your  young  com- 
pany will  observe  and  learn  nothing  but  what  you 
feel  a  deep  interest  in.  The  path,  loo,  that  the 
Abecedarian  has  to  tread  is  long  and  rugged  ;  and 
unless  you  have  an  unconquerable  perseverance,  you 
will  not  be  disposed  to  continue  his  companion. 

After  we  have  mastered  any  point,  it  is  difficult  for 
us  to  see  why  it  does  not  appear  as  clear  and  easy  to 


64  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

others  as  it  does  to  ourselves ;  and  you  will  need 
patience  to  make  many  repetitions  and  many  illus- 
trations which  will  be  dry  and  tedious  to  you,  but 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  learner.  Children  are 
apt  to  be  impatient  under  restraint,  and  discouraged 
with  difficulties, — the  teacher  should  possess  the 
opposite  qualities  for  their  imitation :  the  pupils 
should  see  in  his  conduct  that  perseverance  conquers 
all  things ;  thut  nothing  is  denied  to  well-directed 
labour;  and  that  if  any  one  loill  wait  long  enough, 
he  loill  obtain  his  object. 

He  who  engages  in  teaching  should  he  qualified 
to  overcome  the  difficulties  of  his  profession.  There 
are  many  trying  difficulties  peculiar  to  the  district 
school  teacher ;  but  these  he  must  be  able  to  sur- 
mount. He  will  meet  with  many  parents  who  are 
criminally  indiffisrent  to  the  education  of  their  chil- 
dren. This  apathy  or  indifference  he  will  have  to 
encounter  under  a  variety  of  forms.  Many  parents 
have  not  been  educated  to  the  love  of  knowledge, 
and  therefore  do  not  think  an  education  very  im- 
portant for  their  children. 

They  do  not  set  a  good  example  for  their  offspring, 
by  taking  every  opportunity  to  improve  their  own 
minds,  and  to  point  out  the  advantages  of  knowledge; 
and  hence  the  children  suppose  there  is  no  very 
great  necessity  for  attending  to  the  instructions  of 
the  teacher.  So,  instead  of  having  the  co-operation 
of  parents,  the  teacher  will  have  to  labour  against 
their  unintentional  bad  influence. 

The  teacher  will  find  some  of  his  employers  un- 
able to  appreciate  his  faithfulness  and  his  daily  sacri- 
fices ;  he  will  be  obliged  to  toil  without  their  sym- 
pathy, and  frequently  without  their  respect.  This 
he  must  not  only  put  up  with,  but  he  must  make 
extra  efforts  to  supply  the  parents'  deficiencies.  The 
attendance  of  the  scholars  will  be  irregular ;  and  the 
school  badly  provided  with  necessary  apparatus  ;  the 


DISTRICT   SCHOOL.  65 

teacher  must  expect  to  labour  under  these  disadvan- 
tages. The  school-house  may  be  unpleasantly  lo- 
cated and  badly  constructed  ;  it  may  be  in  a  very 
uncomfortable  condition,  the  windows  broken,  the 
door  off  from  the  hinges,  the  roof  open  and  leaky, 
the  floor  and  benches  broken,  and  the  stove  or  fire- 
place filling  the  cramped  and  crowded  room  with 
smoke ;  this  he  must  endure  in  many  instances  until 
he  can  prevail  on  his  employers  to  make  a  change. 

He  will  find  that  the  scholars  have  been  super- 
ficially taught ;  that  they  have  been  badly  governed; 
that  they  have  wretched  habits,  both  in  acquiring 
and  reciting  their  lessons  ;  and  that  they  are  averse 
to  systematic  and  close  application.  These  obstacles 
he  will  have  to  oppose  and  overcome.  The  scholars 
will  not  be  furnished  with  appropriate  books  ;  those 
they  have,  are  either  too  elevated  for  their  capacities, 
and  will  require  constant  explanation,  or  so  old  and 
familiar  that  they  have  ceased  to  excite  any  interest. 

From  a  want  of  books,  he  will  not  be  able  to 
classify  his  pupils,  and  thus  he  will  be  obliged  to 
attend  to  them  separately :  this  deficiency  and  un- 
suitableness  in  books  will  cause  the  teacher  much 
perplexity  and  additional  labour  ;  but  this  he  must 
be  qualified  to  do,  and  prepared  to  endure. 

He  will  find  many  things  requiring  his  attention 
at  the  same  time  ;  some  requesting  privileges  and 
others  assistance ;  some  covertly  in  mischief,  and 
others  disposed  to  be  idle.  He  must  hear  and  see, 
consent  and  refuse,  keep  order,  and  give  instruction 
in  almost  the  same  moment.  He  must  have,  united 
with  the  most  rapid  despatch,  great  thoroughness 
and  calmness  ;  the  greatest  versatility  of  mind,  united 
with  strength  and  clearness. 

Such  will  be  the  demands  on  a  teacher ;   and  to 

these  he  must  be  willing  and  able  to  conform.     The 

teacher  w^ill  meet  with  parents  who  are  partial  and 

full  of  whims  and  unreasonable  desires.    To  such  he 

f2 


66  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

must  be  firm ;  it  will  not  do  to  humour  them,  and 
3'et  it  will  he  desirable  to  please.  He  will  need 
much  tact  and  much  management ;  he  must  have  a 
good  share  of  common  sense  and  independence,  and 
pursue  a  just,  straiglit- forward  course.  To  do  this  at 
all  times,  he  will  find  difficult ;  but  the  requirement 
is  necessarily  connected  with  his  office. 

Accompanying  your  labours,  there  will  be  con- 
tinued monotony  and  sameness.  This  you  must 
expect,  from  the  nature  of  your  employment.  The 
advancement  of  the  pupils  must  be  slow  ;  while  the 
younger  are  going  over  the  same  ground  that  has 
just  been  travelled  by  the  more  advanced.  This 
want  of  variety  will  be  unpleasant,  and  you  will 
have  to  free  yourself  from  mechanical  operations, 
and  seize  upon  all  the  interest  and  variety  that  the 
cultivation  of  the  mind  will  admit  of. 

If  you  have  a  good  share  of  ingenuity,  and  love 
your  business,  this  monotony  will  almost  disappear ; 
but  if  your  own  mind  is  barren,  and  unable  to  find 
amusement  in  the  union  of  truth  with  the  intellectual 
faculties,  you  will  meet  with  a  weary  sameness. 

You  will  have  to  guard  against  the  effi^ct  which 
the  constant  intercourse  with  minds  far  inferior  will 
have  upon  your  own  mind.  In  school  you  are  the 
criterion  and  the  oracle, — your  word  is  law,  and 
none  dare  dissent, — your  reasons  are  given,  and 
never  disputed, — you  are  the  speaker,  and  no  one 
objects  or  interrupts.  Now,  you  must  be  watchful 
that  you  are  not  as  authoritative  and  dogmatical  out 
of  school,  as  you  must  be  (to  a  certain  degree)  in 
school. 

After  men  have  lived  the  life  of  a  teacher  for 
three  or  four  years,  they  are  not  commonly  very 
agreeable  companions.  The  nature  of  their  business 
has  produced  this  unhappy  effect  ;  and  you  will  be 
wise  in  bringing  all  your  powers  to  bear  against  this 
influence      You    should    frequently    measure    your 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  67 

mind  with  your  equals,  and  always  treat  your  pupils 
as  intelligent  beings  ;  as  if  they  had  a  sense  of  right 
and  wrong,  and  a  perception  of  truth  and  falsehood. 
And,  finally,  you  must  expect  much  ingratitude  and 
small  compensation.  And  you  must  be  prepared  to 
forgive  tlie  one,  and  live  upon  the  other. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  difficulties  which  a  teacher 
must  meet  with,  but  which  he  must  be  qualified  to 
overcome.  He  will  need  a  good  share  of  common 
sense  ;  a  strong,  well-furnished  mind  ;  a  constant 
curb  over  his  feelings,  and  a  close  watch  over  his 
habits.  Let  every  candidate  inquire  whetlier  or  not 
he  has  these  qualifications,  before  he  assumes  an 
office  which  will  certainly  demand  them. 

A  teacher  should  always  appear  pleasant  and 
affectionate.  He  should  make  the  scholars  feel  that 
he  is  seeking  their  good,  and  that  he  desires  their 
happiness.  This  will  be  necessary  to  win  their 
confidence  and  their  afiections.  Without  these  he 
will  labour  in  vain,  and  in  misery.  But  if  he  is 
pleasant  and  agreeable  to  the  children,  they  will  love 
to  be  with  him, and  to  hear  his  instructions.  The  love 
they  have  for  the  teacher  will  be  transferred  to  the 
studies  he  teaches,  and  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
may  be  made  a  constant  amusement  from  the  manner 
it  is  taught. 

A  teacher,  likewise,  should  be  qualified  to  show 
his  pupils  the  importance  of  knowledge.  We  are 
all  very  unwilling  to  make  strong  exertions  for  that 
of  which  we  cannot  see  the  use  or  value  ;  and  we 
are  very  dilatory  in  acquiring  that  which  does  not 
give  present  enjoyment,  or  by  which  we  are  not 
in  some  way  immediately  benefited. 

How  much  more  disinclined  and  dilatory  are 
children,  who  are  unable  to  perceive  the  nature  and 
relations  of  things.  They  cannot  see  the  necessity, 
or  the  advantages,  or  the  pleasures  of  knowledge ; 
and  what  incentives  have  they  to  make  its  acquisi- 


68  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

tion  ?  Now,  it  is  necessary  that  the  teacher  should 
supply,  to  some  extent,  what  their  ignorance  shuts 
out.  He  should  show  them  the  power  that  know- 
ledge has  given  to  the  human  race, — the  liberty  that 
it  has  given  to  nations, — the  glory  and  dignity  with 
which  it  has  invested  the  human  mind, — the  com- 
forts, conveniences,  and  pleasures  it  has  conferred  on 
society,  and  the  respect  and  influence  it  gives  to 
individuals. 

A  perception  (even  if  it  should  be  a  faint  one)  of 
some  of  these  grand  results,  will  give  them  a  fore- 
taste, and  a  determination,  which  will  ensure  high 
attainments.  It  will  make  his  scholars  regard  the 
m^ans  of  cultivating  the  mind  their  highest  privilege 
and  their  greatest  lilessing.  Teachers,  then,  should 
not  only  possess,  and  be  qualified  to  impart  know- 
ledge to  their  pupils,  but  they  should  be  able  to  make 
themyi'e/  its  value. 


SECTION  V. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  COMMON  SCHOOLS,  AND  THE 
DUTIES  OF  THOSE  WHO  HAVE  A  GENERAL  SUPER- 
INTENDENCE   OVER    THEM. 

The  importance  of  good  common  or  district 
schools  is  seen  and  felt  but  by  few.  The  necessity 
of  virtue  and  intelligence  among  a  free  people  is 
always  admitted  ;  yet  the  great  majority  of  our  citi- 
zens are  almost  wholly  indifferent  to  the  primary 
schools,  the  very  sources  of  a  nation'' s  intelligence; 
for,  as  it  is  well  known,  nineteen  citizens  out  of 
twenty  receive  all  their  education  in  them.  Even 
reflecting  men  seldom  look  so  near  the  beginning  of 
things  as  to  see  that  the  blessings  and  perpetuity  of 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  69 

oiir  happy  government  are  to  a  great  extent  in  the 
Jiands  and  under  the  direction  of  the  common  school- 
master. 

In  our  common  schools  the  nation  receives  its 
education.*  Mothers  and  schoolmasters  sow  the 
seeds  either  of  tyranny,  anarchy,  or  liberty;  for  the 
strength  and  destiny  of  any  community  lie  in  the 
virtue  and  intelligence  of  its  younger  members.  A 
wise  and  good  government  can  be  established  and 
sustained  only  by  the  wise  and  good  ;  and  if  the 
teachers  in  our  common  schools  are  ignorant  and 
vicious,  the  youthful  part  of  the  nation  must  be  in 
very  unfavourable  circumstances  :  but  if  they  are 
wise  and  good,  the  character  of  the  people  must  be 
greatly  benefited. 

In  our  common  schools,  our  ministers  and  magis- 
trates, legislators  and  presidents,  commenced  their 
education.  Here  did  the  men  whom  we  admire  as 
the  strength  and  beauty  of  our  nation  receive  their 
first  impressions,  their  first  principles,  and  their  first 
character.  In  these  schools  did  the  men,  to  whom 
we  look  up  for  counsel  and  instruction,  commence 
their  moral  and  intellectual  greatness  ;  and  in  these 
primary  founts  of  knowledge  are  placed  those  who 
will  perpetuate  or  destroy  all  that  is  excellent  and 
beautiful  in  this  young  republic. 

Is  not  the  condition  and  character  of  our  common 

*  There  is  more  hope  of  the  apathy  of  ignorance,  than  of 
the  self-sa^ifaction  of  contentment  with  matters  as  they  are. 
There  are  many  who  look  upon  the  current  education  for  all 
ranks  in  this  country  as  a  model  of  perfection.  As  the  Edin- 
burgh Review  (No.  116  page  541)  says,  "We  are  even 
ignorant  of  our  wants.  In  fact  the  difficulty  of  all  educational 
improvement  in  Britain  lies  less  in  the  amount,  however  enor- 
mous, of  work  to  be  performed,  than  in  the  notion  that  not  a 
great  deal  is  requisite.  Our  pedagogical  ignorance  is  only 
equalled  by  our  pedagogical  conceit;  and  where  few  are  com- 
petent to  understand,  all  believe  themselves  qualified  to  de- 
cide."— Simpson. 


70  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

schools,  then,  of  the  highest  importance  ?  Are  not 
the  character  and  qualifications  of  their  teachers  of 
the  very  first  consideration  ?  These  schools  have  in 
emhryo  the  future  communities  of  this  land.  With 
them,  the  empire  and  liherty  of  these  States  must 
rise  or  fall ;  for  they  are  at  once  the  repositories  of 
freedom,  and  the  pillars  of  the  republic. 

And  now,  we  again  ask,  are  not  these  schools  of 
the  highest  importance?  Should  not  every  indivi- 
dual feel  the  deepest  interest  in  their  character  and 
condition?  Should  not  the  strong  arm  of  govern- 
ment be  thrown  around  them  for  a  protection  ?  And 
should  not  the  wisdom  of  legislation  watch  over  and 
counsel  them  with  a  parental  solicitude  ?*  To  what 
purpose  shall  we  enact  laws,  unless  there  is  intelli- 
gence to  perceive  their  justice,  and  principle  to  which 
they  can  appeal  ?  And  what  other  fountains  of  in- 
telligence have  we  for  the  ivhole  j)^ople,  but  our 
common  schools  ? 

But  do  these  schools  receive  that  close  attention, 
that  friendly  aid,  that  enlightened  and  fostering  care, 
wiiich  their  high  importance  demands  ?  Our  intel- 
ligent men  appear  as  if  our  individual  happiness,  and 
the  glory  and  prosperity  of  this  nation  rested  rather 
in  our  constitutions,  revenues,  and  armies,  than  in 
the  virtue  and  intelligence  of  the  whole  people. 
And  how  often  do  philanthropists  forget  that  the 
chief  part  of  human  vice  is  evidently  founded  on 
the  predominance  of  the  sensual  over  the  moral  and 
intellectual  nature  !  ^ 

The  learned  and  leading  men  in  nearly  every  sec- 
tion of  the  United  States  overlook  the  common 
school,  and  give  their  attention,  influence,  and  pe- 
cuniary support  to  select  schools,  academies,  colleges, 

*  Care  is  everywhere  to  be  taken  to  furnish  necessitous 
parents  with  the  means  of  sending  their  children  to  school,  by 
providing  them  with  the  things  necessary  for  their  instruction, 
or  with  such  clothes  as  they  stand  in  need  of. — Cousin'' s  Report, 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  71 

and  seminaries.  These  men  seldom  inquire  into 
the  character  or  capacity  of  the  teacher  or  of  the 
district-school.  Not  giving  these  schools  their  pa- 
tronage, they  feel  entirely  indifferent  to  their  condi- 
tion. The  teacher,  consequently,  is  selected  hy  the 
ignorant ;  and  the  whole  management  of  the  school 
left  in  the  hands  of  the  careless  and  illiterate. 

The  uninformed  part  of  the  district  know  neither 
the  proper  qualifications  of  a  teacher,  nor  the  value 
of  an  education  ;  and  therefore  a  man  having  very 
limited  acquirements,  and  prohably  many  forbidding 
qualities,  and  without  the  least  aptitude  to  teach,  is 
frequently  employed  to  impart  character  and  educa- 
tion to  the  children.  What  may  we  expect  the 
teacher  to  be,  when  chosen  by  such  men  !  What 
efficiency  can  we  look  for  in  the  school,  wlien  the 
careless  and  the  ignorant  have  the  whole  direction  ! 

These  schools,  then,  should  have  the  superintend- 
ence of  the  learned  and  leading  men  ;  they  should 
assist  in  making  choice  of  the  teacher  ;  they  should 
give  the  teacher  their  co-operation,  and  encourage 
him  by  their  attention  and  their  patronage.  This 
more  favoured  part  of  the  community  should  feel 
that  they  have  a  duty  to  perform  towards  the  less 
favoured  ;  and  that  the  blessings  of  society  are  mul- 
tiplied by  affording  the  means  of  moral  and  intel- 
lectual instruction  to  every  individual. 

The  learned  and  wealthy  should  perceive  that  the 
education  of  the  infant  mind  is  far  less  expensive  to 
them  than  the  support  of  the  aged  criminal  ;  that  the 
fruitfulness  of  their  lands  depends  not  so  much  upon 
the  richness  of  the  soil  as  upon  the  intelligence  of 
the  cultivators  ;  and  that  the  labour  of  him  whose 
head  can  help  his  hands  is  far  more  profitable  than 
the  service  of  the  ignorant.  The  learned  and  wealthy 
should  see  likewise  that  universal  education  is  the 
only  true  security  of  life  and  property. 

Learned  and  influential  men  may  do  much  for 


72  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

common  schools,  by  encouraging  qualified  teachers, 
and  by  obtaining  for  them  public  assistance.  They 
may  give  their  respect  and  lend  their  influence  to 
the  profession  of  teaching,  and  by  this  means  make 
it  more  reputable  and  lucrative  than  it  is  at  present.* 
They  may  give  interest  and  assistance  to  institutions 
and  associations  intended  to  qualify  teachers  and 
diffuse  knowledge  ;  and  they  may  see  that  legislation 
does  all  that  it  can  do  for  such  schools. 

The  duties  of  inspectors  are  very  important  to 
common  schools.  As  the  character  and  usefulness 
of  the  schools  depend  upon  the  qualifications  of  the 
teachers,  the  inspectors  should  be  strict  in  their  exa- 
minations, and  well  assured  of  the  competency  of 
those  who  receive  certificates.  In  organizing  the 
school  system,  inspectors  were  appointed  to  prevent 
the  disqualified  from  entering  into  the  responsible 
profession  of  teaching. 

They  are  to  judge  what  candidates  are  prepared 
for  instructing ;  and  to  admit  none  but  such  as  are 
qualified.  Thus  the  character  of  the  district  school 
is  placed  almost  entirely  in  their  hands.  It  is  in 
their  power  to  admit  none  but  such  as  promise  to 
be  useful  in  their  vocation  and  honourable  to  their 
profession ;  or,  by  being  lax  and  faithless,  to  give 
certificates  to  those  who  have  not  one  necessary 
qualification ;  and  who  will,  by  attempting  to  dis- 
charge duties  of  which  they  are  entirely  ignorant, 
bring  disgrace  upon  themselves  and  their  employ- 
ment. 

The  laxity  and  ignorance  of  some  inspectors  is 

*  In  Prussia  and  in  France  a  weekly  paper  and  a  monthly 
magazine  are  published  by  the  jrovernment,  and  sent  to  all  the 
schools.  The  schools  of  the  United  States  ask  their  respect- 
ive state  governments  for  the  same  assistance.  I  do  not  know- 
that  a  part  of  the  school  fund  could  be  more  wisely  expended 
than  in  defraying  the  expenses  of  a  weekly  paper  for  each 
elementary  school.  This  paper  should  be  devoted  entirely  to 
the  great  interest  of  primary  education. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  73 

one  great  cause  of  the  low  and  useless  condition  of 
many  of  our  common  schools.  They  have  acted 
upon  the  principle  that  a  poor  school  is  better  than 
none ;  and  thus  have  given  their  certificate  to  those 
whom  they  knew  were  unqualified.  Hence  the  can- 
didate's examination,  under  the  board  of  inspectors, 
has  frequently  been  little  else  than  mere  form  and 
ceremony ;  affording  no  obstacle  to  ignorance,  and 
no  measure  for  the  discovery  and  encouragement 
of  real  merit. 

The  inspectors  are  requested  by  the  inhabitants 
of  a  certain  district  "  to  be  lenient  to  such  a  candi- 
date, for  he  is  a  cousin,  or  can  be  hired  cheap ;  and 
although  he  has  not  much  learning,  he  will  do  well 
enough  for  their  children."  The  inspectors,  acting 
upon  their  old  principle,  that  a  poor  teacher  is  better 
than  none ;  and  forgetting  the  high  duties  of  their 
office,  and  the  honour  of  that  profession  of  which 
they  are  the  guardians,  listen  to  the  request,  and  the 
disqualified  candidate  finds  no  difficulty  in  obtaining 
a  certificate. 

This  compromise  with  ignorance  and  avarice  on 
the  part  of  inspectors,  has  placed  men  as  teachers 
of  our  common  schools  who  would  not  be  trusted 
by  their  employers  with  a  favourite  horse.  Such  are 
the  consequences  of  unfaithfulness  among  inspect- 
ors. Many  of  them  should  be  far  more  rigid  than 
they  have  heretofore  been  ;  and  they  should  rigidly 
and  watchfully  exercise  the  whole  of  their  duties. 

They  should  not  only  ascertain  that  the  candidate 
has  the  amount  of  knowledge  requisite  for  a  teacher, 
but  they  should  examine  his  powers  of  communicat- 
ing to  others  the  knowledge  he  may  possess.  This 
qualification,  inspectors  almost  entirely  overlook. 
But,  as  a  teacher,  it  is  certainly  as  important  that 
he  should  be  able  to  impart  to  others  what  he 
knows,  as  it  is  to  be  familiar  with  the  branches  he 
is  expected  to  teach.  And  he  should  be  able,  not 
G 


74  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

only  to  communicate  what  he  has  acquired,  but  he 
should  be  able  to  communicate  it  to  children.  The 
teacher  should  be  able  to  simplify  and  illustrate,  and 
adapt  his  instructions  to  the  infant  mind. 

But  whether  the  candidate  has  this  necessary 
ability  or  not,  the  inspectors  seldom  ascertain.  This 
is  frequently  found  to  be  a  serious  neglect;  for 
teachers  are  often  seen  in  our  common  schools  who 
have  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  elementary  branches 
which  they  teach,  but  who  are  wholly  unqualified 
for  giving  instruction  to  others.  The  want  of  this 
qualification  is  a  common  defect  among  teachers ; 
and  inspectors  should  be  the  more  watchful  over 
their  applicants  for  certificates.  Inspectors  should 
also  ascertain  whether  the  candidate  is  fond  of  the 
society  of  children  and  youth  ;  and  whether  he  has 
studied  the  operations  of  the  youthful  mind,  and 
found  out  how  children  think  and  learn. 

And,  above  all,  they  should  know  that  the  appli- 
cant possesses  a  good  moral  character.  Many  are 
admitted  to  teach  in  our  primary  schools,  in  con- 
sideration of  their  experience  or  high  qualifications, 
who  are  well  known  to  lead  immoral  lives,  and  to 
entertain  and  teach  the  very  worst  of  principles. 
The  highest  qualifications  should  never  procure  a 
certificate  when  there  is  the  least  blemish  on  the 
moral  character  ;  and  the  inspectors  here  should  be 
firm,  and  require  some  knowledge  of  the  candidate's 
former  life. 

I  know  not  any  duties  more  important  and  re- 
sponsible, in  relation  to  district  schools,  than  those 
which  belong  to  inspectors.  But  how  often  are  they 
shamefully  and  criminally  discharged!  If  schools 
are  as  their  teachers,  (and  they  certainly  are,)  how 
strict  shouM  inspectors  be  in  their  examination!* 

*  It  is  the  duty  of  the  enlightened  persons  to  whom  the 
superintendence  of  the  schools  is  confided,  to  watch  over  the 
progress  of  the  masters  in  attainments. — Cousin's  Reports 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  15 

As  the  trustees  of  a  common  school  are  local 
officers,  living  within  the  district,  they  have  a  close 
and  continued  superintendence  over  the  school. 
Their  duties  are  to  employ  a  teacher,  keep  the 
school-house  in  repair,  and  supply  it,  or  see  that  it 
is  supplied,  with  all  the  necessaries  which  the  com- 
fort of  the  teacher  and  scholars  may  require.  While 
they  are  in  office,  the  immediate  management  of  the 
school  is  put  into  their  hands.  If  it  is  the  voice  of 
the  district,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  trustees  to 
see  that  a  proper  teacher  is  constantly  employed. 
They  must  judge  of  the  applications  of  teachers,  and 
refer  the  most  promising  to  the  inspectors. 

If  the  school  should  be  vacant,  and  there  should 
be  no  applications  from  teachers,  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
trustees  to  make  it  known  abroad  that  an  instructer 
is  wanted  in  their  district.  It  is  also  the  business 
of  the  trustees  to  see  that  the  school-house  is  of  a 
proper  size,  in  a  good  condition,  and  is  comfortably 
furnished  w^ith  fixtures,  w^ood,  and  water.  If  any 
necessary  should  be  wanting,  they  have  the  power, 
and  it  is  their  duty,  to  order  it,  and  call  upon  the 
district  for  payment. 

The  trustees  should  likewise  reconcile  the  diffi- 
culties which  may  arise  between  the  teacher  and 
scholars,  or  the  teacher  and  the  employers.  The 
number  of  children  in  the  district  who  draw  public 
money  must  be  made  out  by  the  trustees,  and  re- 
ported to  the  commissioners  of  common  schools. 
These  are  some  of  the  principal  duties  of  the  trus- 
tees of  district  schools.  It  can  be  seen,  that  they  are 
of  such  importance  that  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  discharged  will  greatly  affect  the  interest  and 
usefulness  of  the  school. 

The  trustees  are  the  life  of  tlie  school.  If  they 
are  active,  watchful,  and  faithful,  the  school  will 
flourish ;  but  if  they  are  irresolute  and  indifferent, 
the  school  will  dwindle,  and  finally  go  down.     The 


76  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

trustees  should  act  in  union,  and  with  energy.  But 
it  unfortunately  happens  that  this  is  not  the  case  in 
every  instance ;  for  it  is  frequently  seen  that  they 
are  far  from  being  prompt  and  united  in  the  dis- 
charge of  their  duties.  They  are  often  elected  when 
absent,  and  probably  not  informed  of  their  important 
relation  to  the  school  till  several  months  liave  passed 
by  ;  and  then  it  is  not  unusual  for  them,  through 
some  personal  pique,  or  the  pressure  of  business,  or 
from  the  peculiar  character  of  their  colleagues,  or 
some  other  excuse  or  whim,  to  object  from  serv- 
ing.* 

Thus  the  school  for  months,  and  very  likely  for 
a  whole  year,  has  no  efficient  overseer  to  apply  to, 
either  for  wants  or  direction.  Trustees  frequently 
omit  giving  notice,  or  at  least  general  notice,  of  their 
special  or  stated  meetings  ;  and  it  is  very  often  that 
these  meetings  are  not  attended  by  themselves. 
They  frequently  differ  in  their  opinions  respecting 
the  character  or  wages  of  the  teacher,  and  thus  create 
a  delay  or  a  dissension,  which  is  of  the  greatest  injury 
to  the  district.  Sometimes  they  disagree  on  what 
are  necessaries  for  the  school ;  and  hence  derange 
and  almost  destroy  the  organization  of  the  school, 
by  denying  its  reasonable  requests. 

One  trustee  wants  a  cheap  teacher,  and  a  school 
one  half  of  the  year ;  the  others  think  that  a  well- 
qualified  teacher,  although  his  wages  are  more,  is 
the  cheapest,  and  believe  that  the  district  will  be 
none  too  wise  if  the  school  is  continued  through  the 
year.  The  result  of  this  division,  very  often,  is 
the  prevention  of  any  school  whatever  for  a  long 
time. 

These  are  some  of  the  evils  which  our  schools 
suffer  by  having  ignorant,  faithless,  and  unreasonable 
trustees.     Men  who  are  appointed  to  exercise  a  fos- 

*  No  one  shall  refuse  to  become  one  of  the  managing 
school-committee. — Cousbi's  Report. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  77 

tering  care  over  the  school,  prove  themselves  to  be 
its  worst  enemies.  The  inhabitants  of  the  district 
perceive  that  the  affairs  of  the  school  want  attending 
to,  but  know  that  it  belongs  to  the  trustees  to  see  to 
them,  and  so  find  an  excuse  for  their  indifference. 
Thus  the  trustees,  by  their  office,  prevent  others 
from  doing  what  they  themselves  leave  undone. 
It  is  far  better  that  a  school  should  have  no  such 
guardians,  unless  they  are  disposed  to  be  united, 
faithful,  and  active.  Poor  schools  are  owing  in  a 
great  measure  to  the  want  of  good  trustees,  and  every 
district  should  be  solicitous  whom  they  appoint  to 
this  office. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  commissioners  of  common 
schools  to  return  the  reports  of  the  trustees  to  the 
general  superintendent,  and  to  distribute  the  public 
money  among  the  several  districts  of  the  town,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  children  in  each  whose 
age  entitles  them  to  the  public  fund.  It  is  likewise 
their  duty  to  determine  the  location  of  the  school- 
house,  when  the  inhabitants  of  the  district  do  not 
agree  ;  and  also  to  divide  or  unite  districts  which  in 
their  view  may  require  such  change. 

The  commissioners  and  inspectors  are,  moreover, 
expected  to  pay  frequent  visits  to  the  several  schools 
of  the  town,  and  examine  their  condition,  the  faith- 
fulness and  ability  of  the  teachers,  and  the  progress 
which  the  children  make  in  their  studies.  A  faith- 
ful discharge  of  this  latter  duty  would  be  of  great 
benefit  to  our  schools.  I  sincerely  hope,  that  these 
respectable  and  important  guardians  of  education 
will  hereafter  feel  it  their  interest  and  their  pleasure 
to  be  more  attentive  to  the  momentous  duty  con- 
fided to  their  trust.  Every  state  needs  a  separate 
officer  of  public  instruction.  The  minister  of  public 
instruction  in  Prussia  gives  his  whole  attention  to 
the  school  and  state  of  education.  But  in  our  state 
the  general  superintendent  of  common  schools  is, 
G  2 


78  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

likewise,  secretary  of  state.  This  is  too  much  for 
one  officer.  There  should  be  nothing  to  divert  the 
attention  of  that  minister  who  has  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  people's  education.  This  public  officer 
should,  also,  take  the  highest  rank.  In  Prussia  and 
in  France  the  minister  of  instruction  ranks  with  the 
highest  officers  of  state.  But  singular  as  it  may- 
seem,  in  our  own  country,  where  education  if  possi- 
ble is  much  more  important,  this  is  not  the  case. 
Several  of  the  states,  even,  have  never  had  any 
such  officer!!! 

Ministers,  if  they  are  disposed,  may  do  much  for 
our  common  schools.  I  know  of  no  class  of  indi- 
viduals who  have  the  power  of  doing  more.  But  it 
is  unfortunately  the  case,  that  ministers  neglect  to 
take  that  care  of  the  education  of  the  children  in 
their  congregation,  which  their  duty  and  success 
demand.  But  few  perceive  that  by  the  time  the 
younger  part  of  their  flock  receive  years  and  know- 
ledge sufficient  to  be  profited  by  their  sermons,  the 
world  has  given  them  characters  which  will  be  diffi- 
cult to  change,  and  which  will  probably  remain  for 
time  and  eternity.  They  seem  to  forget  that  the 
school-room  is  the  place  where  they  should  meet 
the  minds  of  their  youthful  hearers. 

The  minister  may  frequently  invite  the  teachers 
of  the  schools  in  his  parish  to  visit  him,  and  then 
converse  with  them  on  the  best  method  of  teaching 
children,  and  how  they  may  increase  and  improve 
the  means  of  instruction.  He  will  here  have  an 
opportunity  of  rendering  assistance  to  those  teachers 
who  feel  an  inability  to  fill  their  difficult  and  respon- 
sible office.  Ministersu  should  be  familiar  with  the 
character  and  qualifications  of  the  teachers  in  their 
congregation,  and  with  the  condition  of  all  the 
schools. 

They  should  know  the  number  of  the  children 
who  go  to  school,  and  the  number  who  do  not  attend. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  79 

They  may  know  the  progress  which  the  children 
make  in  their  studies,  and  the  fitness  and  character 
of  the  books  they  use ;  and  they  may  ascertain  and 
improve  the  moral  discipline  by  which  they  are 
daily  governed. 

But  how  seldom  is  this  done!  How  few  ministers 
know  as  much  as  they  might  of  the  means  and 
amount  of  education  in  their  congregation!  How 
few,  in  their  pastoral  visits,  stop  at  the  school-house, 
and  examine  the  morals  and  intelligence  of  the  chil- 
dren! We  do  hope  that  ministers  will  feel  that 
these  schools  have  stronger  claims  upon  their  care 
and  counsel  than  they  have  heretofore  received.* 

But  with  all  tliis  desirable  and  necessary  super- 
vision from  law,  learning,  and  experience,  the  cha- 
racter and  usefulness  of  the  school  will  depend  very 
much  upon  the  individual  efforts  of  each  inhabitant 
of  the  district.  Parents  must  be  willing  to  give  a 
fair  compensation  to  the  instructers  of  their  children; 
and  every  teacher,  and  scholar,  and  guardian,  and 
parent,  must  feel  that  the  interest  and  value  of  the 
school  depend  upon  his  own  intelligence  and  exer- 
tions.t 

*  We  must  have  the  clergy ;  we  must  neglect  nothing-  to 
bring  them  into  the  path  towards  which  every  thing  urges 
them  to  turn, — both  their  obvious  interest,  and  their  sacred 
calling,  and  the  ancient  services  which  their  order  rendered 
to  the  cause  of  civilization  in  Europe.  But  if  we  wish  to 
have  the  clergy  allied  with  us  in  the  work  of  popular  instruc- 
tion, that  instruction  must  not  be  stripped  of  morality  and 
religion  ;  for  then  indeed  it  would  become  the  duty  of  the 
clergy  to  oppose  it,  and  they  would  have  the  sympathy  of  all 
virtuous  men,  of  all  good  fathers  of  families,  and  even  of  the 
mass  of  the  people,  on  their  side. 

f  After  the  administrative  authorities,  it  is  unquestionably 
the  clergy  who  ought  to  occupy  the  most  important  place  in 
the  btisiness  of  popular  education.  How  is  it  possible  they 
could  neglect,  nay,  even  repugn,  such  a  mission  1  But  that 
they  have  done  so  is  a  fact,  which,  however  deplorable,  we 
are  bound  to  acknowledge.  The  clergy  in  France  are  gene- 
rally indifferent,  or  even  hostile,  to  the  education  of  the  peo- 
ple.— Cousin^s  Report, 


80  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

SECTION  VI. 

TEACHING    SHOULD    BE    MADE    A    PROFESSION. 

Teaching,  in  our  district  schools,  should  be  made 
a  distinct  profession.  The  teacher's  employment 
should  be  made  as  honourable  and  as  separate  as  the 
physician's,  the  divine's,  or  the  lawyer's.*  The 
teacher  should  prepare  himself  for  his  business,  and 
labour  as  exclusively  in  his  calling  as  the  lawyer 
does  in  his. 

To  be  a  good  instructer  requires  as  much  know- 
ledge of  human  nature,  as  uniform  a  government 
over  ourselves,  and  as  complete  a  mastery  of  the 
respective  studies,  as  it  does  to  be  a  good  preacher. 
All  who  take  this  view  of  the  subject,  and  we  think 
all  who  have  had  any  experience,  or  made  but  a 
few  observations,  will,  must  agree  with  us,  when 
we  say  that  teaching  should  be  made  a  distinct  pro- 
fession. 

We  w^ould  not  employ  a  man  who  may  have  had 
a  good  education,  but  had  given  his  attention  to 
buying  and  selling  goods,  to  be  our  physician,  when 
disease  takes  hold  upon  us.  We  would  not  engage 
a  man  to  plead  our  rights  before  a  judge  and  jury, 
who  had  not  made  the  law  and  the  rights  of  man  his 

*  But  if,  on  the  one  hand,  it  is  incumbent  on  those  charged 
with  the  conduct  of  the  public  schools  to  strive  to  accomplish 
the  duties  the  slate  imposes  on  them  for  the  training  of  citizens, 
they,  on  their  part,  have  a  right  to  expect  that  every  one  should 
pay  the  respect  and  gratitude  to  which  they  are  entitled  as 
labourers  in  the  sacred  work  of  education.  Masters  and  mis- 
tresses ought,  therefore,  to  be  the  objects  of  the  general  esteem 
due  to  their  laborious  and  honourable  functions. — CousirCs 
Report, 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  81 

study  for  years.  Neither  would  we  choose  that 
man  to  be  our  teacher  in  divine  things,  who  does  not 
make  the  Bible  the  rule  and  study  of  his  life. 

Why  not?  Why  do  we  require  the  wisdom  of 
experience  and  professional  knowledge  in  these  three 
vocations  ?  Is  it  not  because  we  know  that  they 
are  absolutely  necessary  ?  What  is  it  that  the  law, 
or  the  medical,  or  the  theological  student  gains  in 
devoting  six  or  eight  years  to  literary,  and  three 
years  to  professional  studies?  Is  it  not  the  expe- 
rience and  the  wisdom  of  others?  Is  not  all  this 
preparation  made  to  enable  them  to  perceive  the  na- 
ture, rights,  condition,  and  duties  of  man? 

Now,  are  the  labours  of  the  teacher  less  difficult, 
less  arduous  than  either  of  the  professions  I  have 
mentioned  ?  That  the  teacher  may  perform  his 
duty  well,  does  he  not  need  the  experience  of  others? 
Is  it  not  necessary  for  him  to  perceive  the  nature, 
duties,  and  condition  of  men?  This  will  be  admit- 
ted. Then  why  not  make  it  as  necessary  to  spend 
the  same  amount  of  time,  and  enjoy  privileges  as 
high  for  obtaining  this  knowledge? 

Why  is  it  that  the  practice  of  law  and  medicine 
is  so  much  more  honourable  and  lucrative  than  ele- 
mentary teaching  ?  Not  because  these  professions 
are  more  important  to  the  community — not  because 
there  is  any  more  necessity  for  them.  No  ;  they 
are  less  important,  less  necessary.  What,  then,  is 
the  reason  ?  We  answer,  that  before  men  can  prac- 
tise in  either  of  these  professions,  they  must  qualify 
themselves — they  must  fit  themselves  for  doing 
honour  and  justice  to  their  profession. 

These  professions  have  taken  a  high  place  in  the 
estimation  of  the  world,  not  because  they  are  more 
influential  in  giving  a  high  and  noble  character  to 
men,  for  the  elementary  teacher  has  the  formation 
of  the  character  in  his  own  hands — but  because  there 
are  in  these  professions,  learning,  and  talent,  and 


82  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

character.  But  why  are  there  not  this  learning,  and 
character,  and  talent  among  teachers  ?  simply  because 
their  learning  is  not  appreciated — not  rewarded ; 
talent  with  them  has  no  opportunity  of  gaining  dis- 
tinction, and  character  is  not  always  required. 

Men  think  more  of  their  ivills,  or  the  pleasures 
of  the  body,  than  tlicy  do  of  an  education,  or  the 
happiness  of  a  well-regulated  mind.  The  reason  of 
this  unwise  choice  is,  they  have  never  been  educated 
to  the  love  of  knowledge — they  have  never  felt  the 
power  and  pleasure  there  is  in  knowing.  Why  ? 
They  have  never  had  teachers  who  could  develop 
the  mind,  and  lay  open  before  it  the  treasures  of 
science.  They  never  had  teachers  who  made  the 
school-room  the  most  delightful  place  they  ever 
visited — who  made  the  exercise  of  learning  the  most 
agreeable  one  they  ever  engaged  in. 

But  why  have  there  not  been  such  teachers  ? 
There  have  never  been  any  means  or  pains  taken 
to  qualify  them.  The  teachers  have  not  made  in- 
struction their  business — their  profession.  They 
have  not  loved  their  employment — probably  dis- 
liked it.  They  became  teachers  from  necessity. 
This  office  was  not  their  choice — it  was  not  one 
that  they  had  been  making  any  preparation  for. 
How  can  it  be  expected  that  they  should  make  their 
pupils  love  knowledge,  from  the  simple,  attractive 
form  in  which  it  should  be  presented. 

Men  who  assume  this  difficult  profession,  should 
avail  themselves  of  all  the  aid  they  can  obtain. 
They  should  examine  themselves,  and  see  if  they 
are  prepared  for  their  work — whether  they  have  an 
aptitude  to  teach,  and  whether  it  is  probable  they 
will  make  their  business,  their  profession  for  life. 
If  they  intend  to  make  instruction  only  a  temporary 
thing,  a  stepping-stone  to  something  else,  a  mere 
filling  up  of  a  vacant  month,  they  will  have  no  am- 
bition to  excel  in  this  calling,  but  will  be  desirous 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  83 

of  terminating  this  unpleasant  occupation  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  of  entering  into  other  engagements 
more  profitable. 

As  long  as  this  is  the  state  of  things,  our  school- 
houses  will  be  furnished  with  heedless,  incompetent 
teachers.  If  the  character  of  the  instructers  is  ele- 
vated, they  must  be  willing  to  make  their  employ- 
ment their  pijofession.  It  must  be  their  highest 
ambition  to  obtain  the  name  of  a  good  schoolmaster. 
They  must  labour  to  make  their  office  as  much  re- 
spected as  it  is  important — as  well  rewarded  as  it 
is  useful*  Teachers  may  do  this  if  they  will  make 
their  business  their  study,  their  profession. 

When  any  business  is  made  a  profession  there  is 
a  constant  accumulation,  from  experience  and  ex- 
periment, of  practical  knowledge  ;  the  evils  that,  are 
discovered  receive  a  remedy,  and  depart  to  be  felt 
no  more — the  improvements  that  are  made  continue, 
and  the  highest  point  of  excellence  of  one  aged 
teacher  is  made  the  starting  point  of  improvement 
by  his  successor. 

The  reason  the  art  of  teaching  is  so  little  under- 
stood, is, — there  is  no  instruction  in  the  past.  If 
teaching  had  been  made  a  profession,  there  would  be 
a  record  of  the  success  and  the  failure  of  the  past, 
which  would  contain  lessons  more  valuable  to  the 
teacher  than  all  the  projected  theories  and  systems 
in  creation  ;  but  there  has  been  no  book  kept ;  there 
is  no  light  from  the  past  to  throw  its  rays  into 
the  future  ;  no  voice  to  teach,  and  no  decisions  to 
counsel. 

What  was  experiment  one  hundred  years  ago  is 

*  Schoolmasters  are  regarded  by  the  law  of  Prussia  as 
servants  of  the  state ;  as  such,  they  have  the  claim  to  a  retiring 
pension  in  their  old  age;  and  in  every  department  a  society, 
which  the  law  recommended  rather  than  enjoined,  has  been 
formed  for  the  relief  of  the  widows  and  orphans  of  school- 
masters.— Cousin's  Report. 


84  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

experiment  still.  That  which  was  conjecture  iheriy 
is  uncertainty  now.  Teachers  have  had  no  com- 
munication with  each  other, — no  exchange  of  views 
and  sentiments, — no  mutual  aid  ;  each  one  has  toiled 
alone  ;  each  teacher's  practical  knowledge  has  been 
buried  with  him,  and  silence  rests  upon  their  tombs, 
and  they  speak  not. 

If  instruction  was  made  a  profession,  teachers 
would  feel  a  sympathy  for  each  other.  Members 
of  the  same  profession  become  attached  by  a  simi- 
larity of  efibrts  and  views  ;  and  in  this  way  the  self- 
denying  life  of  a  teacher  may  become  social.  He 
would  feel  that  not  only  his  own  honour,  but  the 
honour  of  all  his  professional  brethren,  and  the  re- 
spectibility  of  the  profession  itself,  depended  upon  a 
faithful,  conscientious  discharge  of  his  duties. 

He  would  feel  that  this  united  effort  for  the  honour 
and  usefulness  of  his  profession,  demanded  some- 
thing from  him;  and  he  would  act  as  if  he  had  pledg- 
ed something.  This  great  united  effort,  this  exten- 
sive communication  of  sentiments,  would  make  the 
teacher  feel  that  the  eyes  of  the  world  were  upon 
him.  He  would  feel  that  he  had  an  audience,  and 
that  he  had  competitors.  He  would  see  that  there 
was  distinction  to  be  gained — that  he  might  be 
known  and  honoured. 

Unknown  or  disrespected  as  he  now  is,  he  is  con- 
scious of  excellences  unappreciated,  or  deficiencies 
unobserved.  He  compares  himself  with  his  school, 
and  is  proud  of  his  high  attainments ;  he  sees  him- 
self the  oracle  of  the  little  world  he  moves  in,  and 
believes  that  to  know  more  would  be  useless.  The 
intimacy  that  the  transactions  of  a  united  body  of 
men  would  give  him  with  other  teachers,  would  gain 
him  honour  for  his  excellences,  or  dishonour  for  his 
deficiencies.  The  learning  he  would  meet  with 
would  lessen  the  high  opinion  he  had  conceived  of 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  85 

his  own  ;  and  the  united  intelligence  of  all  would 
make  him  perceive  that  more  might  be  learned. 

A  united  body  of  men  command  attention  and 
receive  respect, — -for  they  have  power.  The  defer- 
ence that  is  paid  to  the  whole  is,  in  part,  transferred 
to  each  individual.  In  the  eye  of  the  world,  the 
limited  knowledge  of  any  one  of  the  individual  parts 
is  enlargcd^when  seen  in  connexion  with  the  whole. 
We  say,  then,  again,  let  teaching  be  made  a  pro- 
fession ;  and  let  teachers  be  united  for  their  mutual 
improvement,  and  for  the  respectability  and  useful- 
ness of  their  honourable  profession. 


SECTION  VII. 

SEMINARIES    FOR    TEACHERS. 

Mrs.  Austin,  the  accomplished  translator  of  M. 
Cousin's  repiort  on  "  Public  Instruction  in  Prussia," 
says,  "  there  are  two  or  three  other  points  which  I 
would  fain  recommend  to  the  peculiar  attention  of 
the  reader.  One  of  the  most  important  is  the  abso- 
lute necessity  of  securing  a  constant  supply  of  well- 
trained  schoolmasters.  Time  and  experience  have, 
it  is  to  be  supposed,  nearly  removed  the  illusion  of 
*  mutual  instruction'  as  a  substitute  for  the  instruc- 
tion commujjicated  by  a  mature  to  an  immature 
mind  : — as  a^i  auxiliary  in  certain  mechanical  details, 
no  one  disputes  its  utility.  Observation  long  ago 
convinced  me  of  the  entire  truth  of  the  maxim  laid 
down  by  the  Prussian  government,  and  approved  by 
M.  Cousin,  that '  As  is  the  master,  so  is  the  school.' " 

There  is  no  truth  more  evident  than  the  one  ex- 
pressed in  this  maxim.  The  schools  must  from  the 
H 


86  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

necessity  of  the  case  be  like  their  teachers,  hence 
the  absolute  necessity  of  using  proper  means  to 
qualify  them  for  the  profession  of  teaching.  In  this 
department  of  instruction,  Prussia  is  far  in  advance 
of  the  United  States.  That  despotic  government 
(though  at  present  paternal  in  administration)  re- 
quires the  teachers  of  elementary  schopls  to  pass 
through  certain  stages  of  preparation  m  a  normal 
school,  before  they  can  assume  the  difficult  and 
responsible  station  of  instructer.  The  organized 
school  system  in  neither  of  our  state  governments 
makes  such  requirements.  We  have  not  till  very 
lately  given  any  encouragement  to  young  men  that 
would  induce  them  to  make  suitable  preparations  to 
teach  even  a  district  school.  The  stj?te  of  New 
York  has  just  made  some  provision  for  the  education 
of  teachers  ;  the  plan  we  shall  speak  of  before  we 
close  this  article.  There  have  been  a  few  private 
seminaries  which  have  made  the  education  of  teachers 
their  principal  object ;  but  these  have_^-eceived  no 
assistance  from  government,  and  have,  done  very 
little  towards  supplying  the  schools  of*  the  United 
States.  i 

The  seminary  at  Andover,  conducted  for  several 
years  past  by  the  Rev.  S.  R.  Hall,  has-  done  much 
good,  both  as  presenting  a  model  for  such  institu- 
tions, and  by  sending  out  many  able  instructers. 
At  present  it  seems  to  be  generally  admitted  that 
such  institutions  are  indispensable,  and  that  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  State  governments  to  establ^ish  and  sus- 
tain them. — Since  we  are  about  to  opei  seminaries 
for  teachers  among  us,  it  is  fortunate  th^  we  have  a 
full  and  faithful  report  by  M.  Cousin,  i^f  the  work- 
ings of  the  teachers'  seminaries  in  Prussia. 

The  American  edition  of  this  work  will  furnish 
our  legislature,  school  committees,  and  school  teach- 
ers with  instruction,  not  only  from  the  highest 
authority,  but  also  from  the  most  enlightened  source. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  87 

While  speaking  of  the  necessity,  nature,  studies  and 
benefits  of  seminaries  for  teachers,  I  shall  avail  my- 
self of  such  parts  of  this  report  as  will  give  light  and 
interest  to  the  subject ;  for  says  M.  Cousin,  "  The 
true  greatness  of  a  people  does  not  consist  in  borrow- 
ing nothing  from  others,  but  in  borrowing  from  all 
whatever  is  good,  and  in  perfecting  whatever  it 
appropria  tes. ' ' 

In  M.  Cousin's  remarks  on  the  training  of  pri- 
mary instructors,  he  says,  "The  best  plans  of  instruc- 
tion cannot  be  executed  except  by  the  instrumen- 
tality of  good  teachers  ;  and  the  state  has  done 
nothing  for  popular  education,  if  it  does  not  watch 
that  those  who  devote  themselves  to  teaching  be 
well  prepared  ;  then  suitably  placed,  encouraged,  and 
guided  in  the  duty  of  continued  wSelf-improvement  ; 
and  lastly,  promoted  and  rewarded,  in  proportion 
to  their  advancement,  and  punished  according  to 
their  faults.  Such  is  the  object  of  title  6,  of  the 
law  1829.  We  translate  that,  as  we  did  those  which 
preceded. 

"  A  schoolmaster,  to  be  worthy  of  his  vocation, 
should  be  pious,  discreet,  and  deeply  impressed  with 
the  dignity  and  sacredness  of  his  calling.  He  should 
be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  duties  peculiar  to 
the  grade  of  primary  instruction  in  which  he  desires 
to  be  employed  ;  he  should  possess  the  art  of  com- 
municating knowledge,  with  that  of  moulding  the 
minds  of  children  ;  he  should  be  unshaken  in  his 
loyalty  to  the  state,  conscientious  in  the  duties  of 
his  office,  friendly  in  his  intercourse  with  the  parents 
of  his  pupils,  and  with  his  fellow-citizens  in  general ; 
finally,  he  should  strive  to  inspire  them  with  a  lively 
interest  in  the  school,  and  secure  to  it  their  favour 
and  support. 

"  Of  the  training  of  schoolmasters. — In  order 
gradually  to  provide  schools  with  masters  of  this 
character,  the  care  of  their   training  must  not  be 


88  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

abandoned  to  chance  ;  the  foundation  of  primary 
normal  schools  must  be  continued.  The  expenses 
of  these  establishments  should  be  defrayed  partly  by 
the  general  funds  of  the  state,  and  partly  by  the  de- 
partmental funds  for  schools.'' 

Here  Cousin  unequivocally  declares,  that  the 
"state  has  done  nothing  for  popular  education"  if 
it  does  not  see  that  the  teachers  are  well  qualified. 
The  legislature  of  each  state  should  immediately 
make  provision  for  the  education  of  common  school 
teachers.  That  Prussia  has  done  this,  is  the  whole 
secret  of  her  superior  schools.  But  teachers  must 
not  only  be  "prepared,"  they  must  also  be,  and  this 
by  the  government,  "suitably  placed,  encouraged, 
guided  and  rewarded."  How  far  short  are  we  of 
Cousin's  advice  and  Prussia's  practice! 

The  establishments  for  educating  teachers  in  Prus- 
sia are  supported  by  the  government  funds  and  by 
the  smaller  and  local  divisions  of  the  government. 
With  us  the  school  fund  of  each  state  may  erect 
suitable  buildings,  remunerate  the  professors,  furnish 
a  library  and  apparatus,  and  bear  a  part  of  the  stu- 
dent's expenses  while  preparing  himself  for  teaching. 
This  would  give  encouragement  to  make  teaching 
a  study  and  a  profession  for  life. 

The  following  extract  is  from  Cousin's  report, 
and  is  translated  by  himself  from  title  G  of  the  law 
of  1S19.  We  make  this  extract  to  show  the  design 
which  the  Prussian  government  had  in  establishing 
teachers'  seminaries,  or  to  use  the  Prussian  name 
"  normal  schools."  "  The  principal  aim  of  the  pri- 
mary normal  schools  should  be,  to  form  men,  sound 
both  in  body  and  mind,  and  to  imbue  the  pupils 
with  the  sentiment  of  religion,  and  with  that  zeal 
and  love  for  the  duties  of  a  schoolmaster  which  is 
so  closely  allied  to  religion."  It  is  seen  that  their 
design  is  to  make  their  pupils  we/i,  in  knowledge 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  89 

and  in  person,  and  not  only  this,  but  religious  men, 
and  men  in  love  with  their  business. 

The  next  extract  designates  the  length  of  time  to 
be  spent,  and  marks  out  the  course  of  studies  to  be 
pursued  in  these  seminaries. 

"  In  each  primary  normal  school  the  length  of  the 
course  shall  be  three  years ;  of  which  the  first  is  de- 
vot^  to  supplemental  primary  instruction,  the  second 
to  specific  and  more  elevated  studies,  and  the  third 
to  practice  and  occasional  experiments  in  the  primary 
sch^l  annexed,  and  in  other  schools  of  the  place. 
WKn  the  supplemental  instruction  is  not  required, 
the^lourse  may  be  reduced  to  two  years." 

Tllie  plan  proposed  for  this  state,  in  the  report  of, 
and 'adopted  by,  the  regents  of  the  university,  is  to 
select  one  academy  in  each  of  the  eight  senate  dis- 
tricts of  the  state;  to  appropriate  five  hundred  dol- 
lars to  each,  for  the  purchase  of  a  library  and  appa- 
ratus adapted  to  the  use  of  those  who  are  preparing 
to  be  teachers,  thus  reserving  six  thousand  dollars 
out  of  the  permanent  fund  of  ten  thousand  dollars 
now  on  hand,  for  future  contingencies;  and  from  the 
annual  surplus  revenue  of  the  literature  fund,  (esti- 
mated at  three  thousand  five  hundred  dollars,)  to 
appropriate  four  hundred  dollars  to  each  of  the  aca- 
demies, to  provide  a  special  course  of  instruction  in 
the  art  of  teaching. 

The  following  academies  have  been  selected  for 
this  purpose. 

For  1st  District,  Erasmus  Hall  Academy,    King's  Co. 

2d  "  Montgomery  "  Orange  Co. 

3d  "  Kinderhook  "  Columbia  Co. 

4th  "  St.  Lawrence  "  St.  Lawrence  Co. 

5th  "  Fairfield  "  Herkimer  Co. 

6th  "  Oxford  "  Chenango  Co. 

7th  "  Canandaigua  "  Ontario  Co. 

8th  "  Middlebury  "  Genesee  Co. 

In  regard  to  the  course  of  study  to  be  pursued,  it 
is  remarked  in  the  report,  that  the  standard  should 
H  2 


90  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

be  raised  "  as  high  as  possible,''  because  "  the  quali 
fications  of  those  who  follow  it  will  incline  to  range 
below,  and  not  above,  the  prescribed  standard." 
It  proposes  that  none  should  be  allowed  to  enter  on 
the  course,  who  are  not  acquainted  with  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  so  much  of  geo- 
graphy as  is  found  in  the  duodecimo  works  on  this 
subject,  usually  studied  in  our  schools.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  subjects  of  study  proposed  for  the  teach- 
ers' course,  which  are  required  to  be  thoroughly 
tauglit,  and  while  they  are  not  intended  to  ex^ude 
others,  shall  not  be  allowed  to  give  way  to  any^ 

1.  The  English  language. 

2.  Writing  and  drawing. 

3.  Arithmetic,  mental  and  written;  and  book- 
keeping. 

4.  Geography  and  general  history,  combined. 

5.  The  history  of  the  United  States. 

6.  Geometry,  trigonometry,  mensuration,  and  sur- 
veying. 

7.  Natural  philosophy,  and  the  elements  of  astro- 
nomy. 

8.  Chemistry  and  mineralogy. 

9.  The  constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
constitution  of  the  state  of  New  York. 

10.  Select  parts  of  the  revised  statutes,  and  the 
duties  of  public  officers. 

11.  Moral  and  intellectual  philosophy. 

12.  The  principles  of  teaching. 

Although  the  regents  have  not  excluded  other 
studies  than  those  contained  in  this  programme,  yet 
I  am  surprised  that  botany,  zoology,  and  agriculture, 
and  even  physiology,  are  not  included. 

What  more  interesting  and  useful  studies  for  our 
young  farmers  than  botanj^,  zoology,  and  agricul- 
ture ?  And  how  important  is  it  that  they  should 
have  teachers  who  are  well  acquainted  with  these 
departments  of  natural  history. — Composition  like- 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  91 

wise  is  not  mentioned  ;  one  of  the  most  important 
parts  of  every  man's  education. 

To  secure  the  services  of  those  who  have  been 
educated  by  the  state,  to  make  such  follow  the  busi- 
ness of  teaching,  as  a  profession  for  life,  is  the  most 
difficult  thing  of  this  part  of  legislation.  The  gra- 
duates of  teachers'  seminaries  will  be  qualified  to 
demand  a  much  higher  compensation  for  their  ser- 
vices, than  the  employers  of  district  schools  will  feel 
disposed  to  give  them:  and  unless  there  is  something 
to  prevent,  the  lal)ourers  will  go  where  they  are  best 
rewarded.  There  are  two  ways  of  securing  the  ser- 
vices of  those  who  have  been  educated  in  the  teach- 
ers' seminary. 

The  first  is,  by  creating  a  disposition  in  parents 
to  reward  their  teachers  with  an  adequate  compen- 
sation. If  parents  are  disposed  to  pay  these  teachers 
as  much  as  they  will  be  able  to  get  at  any  other  em- 
ployment, they  will  secure  them  as  teachers ;  but 
they  will  not  teach  unless  parents  pay  more  than 
they  do  at  present.  This  rests  with  parents ;  and 
we  do  hope  that  they  will  adequately  reward  those 
who  have  spent  much  time  and  money  in  preparing 
themselves  to  teach. 

The  other  way  is  adopted  by  Prussia.  I  think 
the  feelings  of  the  people  and  the  spirit  of  our  go- 
vernment would  forbid  this.  I  do  not  think  that  it 
can  be  adopted  in  this  country.  It  may  perhaps  in 
part.  The  following  extract  from  Cousin  will  show 
the  laws  regarding  those  who  have  been  qualified 
to  teach  by  the  government.  "  Every  pupil  of  a 
normal  school  is  obliged,  at  the  expiration  of  the 
term,  to  accept  the  mastership  to  which  the  provin- 
cial consistories  may  appoint  him;  the  prospect  of 
advancement  being,  however,  always  set  before  him 
as  the  consequence  of  continued  good  conduct." 
This  compels  every  one  who  is  competent  to  become 
a  schoolmaster.     If  they  are  not  competent,  they 


92  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

are  either  rejected  altogether  or  sent  back  to  review 
their  studies.  This  will  be  seen  in  another  part  of 
the  same  work,  referred  to  above. 

"  Every  young  man  whose  competency  is  admit- 
ted shall  receive  a  certificate,  delivered  and  signed 
by  the  whole  commission,  his  examiners,  by  their 
president,  and  by  the  head-master  of  the  primary 
normal  school,  or  other  establishment  in  which  he 
Avas  trained  to  his  calling.  It  must  state  his  moral 
character,  and  his  degree  of  aptitude  for  teaching : 
such  as  prove  incompetent  shall,  by  a  formal  decree, 
be  wholly  rejected,  or  sent  back  to  continue  their 
studies." 

The  Prussian  government  is  careful  not  to  admit 
those  into  the  normal  schools  who  are  physically  or 
morally  disqualified  from  making  good  teachers. 
To  show  this  we  make  another  extract  from  Cousin. 

"  The  normal  school  is  by  no  means  designed  for 
those  who  are  unfit  for  any  business,  and  think,  if 
they  can  read  and  write,  they  are  capable  of  becom- 
ing schoolmasters.  This  notion  is  so  deeply  rooted, 
that  you  hear  fathers  declare  with  all  the  simplicity 
in  the  world, — ^  My  son  is  too  delicate  to  learn  a 
business,'  or,  '  I  don't  know  what  to  make  of  my 
son,  but  I  think  of  getting  him  into  the  normal 
school.' 

"  We  reply  to  such,  that  the  pupils  of  the  normal 
school  must,  on  the  contrary,  be  sound  both  in  body 
and  mind,  and  able  to  brave  the  toils  and  troubles 
of  a  career,  as  laborious  as  it  is  honourable.  Much 
neglect  unfortunately  still  exists  on  a  subject  which 
is  of  the  highest  importance, — the  methodical  prepa- 
ration of  these  young  men  for  the  calling  which  it  is 
desired  they  should  embrace.  A  false  direction  is 
often  given  to  their  preliminary  studies.  A  young 
man  is  believed  to  be  well  prepared  for  the  normal 
school,  if  he  have  passed  the  limits  of  elementary 


DISTRICT   SCHOOL.  93 

instruction,  and  if  he  have  acquired  a  greater  mass 
of  knowledge  than  other  pupils. 

"  It  frequently  happens,  that  candidates  who  come 
strongly  recommended  from  school,  pass  the  exami- 
nation w^ithout  credit,  or  are  even  rejected.  The 
most  immediate  and  the  most  important  aim  of  all 
instruction,  is  to  train  up  and  complete  the  man ;  to 
awaken  the  energies  of  his  soul,  and  to  render  him 
not  only  disposed,  but  able  to  fulfil  his  duties.  In 
this  view  alone  can  knowledge  and  talents  profit  a 
man;  otherwise,  instruction  working  upon  sterile 
memory,  and  talents  purely  mechanical,  can  be  of  no 
"high  utility. 

"  In  order  that  the  teacher,  and  particularly  tlie 
master  of  the  primary  school,  may  make  his  pupils 
virtuous  and  enlightened  men,  it  is  necessary  he 
should  be  so  himself.  Thus,  that  the  education  of  a 
normal  school,  essentially  practical,  may  completely 
succeed,  the  young  candidate  must  possess  nobleness 
and  purity  of  character  in  the  highest  possible  de- 
gree, the  love  of  the  true  and  the  beautiful,  an  active 
and  penetrating  mind,  the  utmost  precision  and 
clearness  in  narration  and  style."  The  board  of 
examiners  connected  with  our  seminaries  may  ob- 
tain some  valuable  hints  from  the  preceding  extract. 

Attached  to  every  teacher's  seminary  should  be 
a  department  for  teaching  the  elementary  branches 
of  an  English  education.  This  is  necessary  that 
those  who  are  preparing  to  teach  may  make  a  prac- 
tical application  of  their  instruction.  On  "  practical 
teaching"  hear  Cousin.  "All  the  studies  and  all 
the  knowledge  of  our  pupils  would  be  fruitless,  and 
the  normal  school  would  not  fulfil  the  design  of  its 
institution,  if  the  young  teachers  were  to  quit  the 
establishment,  without  having  already  methodically 
applied  what  they  had  learned,  and  without  know- 
ing by  experience  what  they  have  to  do,  and  how 
to  set  about  it. 


94  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

"To  obtain  this  result,  it  is  not  sufficient  that  the 
young  men  should  see  the  course  gone  through  under 
skilful  masters^  or  that  they  should  themselves 
occasionally  give  lessons  to  their  schoolfellows  ; 
they  must  have  taught  the  children  in  the  annexed 
school  for  a  long  time,  under  the  direction  of  the 
masters  of  the  normal  school.  It  is  only  by  flimi- 
liarizing  themselves  with  the  plan  of  instruction  for 
each  practical  branch,  and  by  teaching  each  for  a 
certain  time  themselves,  that  they  can  acquire  the 
habit  of  it  Vv^ithout  method." 

This  we  think  very  important;  and  whenever  the 
states  shall  feel  it  their  duty  (and  we  trust  it  will  be 
soon)  to  establish  normal  schools,  the  advice  in  the 
last  extract  ought  not  to  be  forgotten. 


SECTIOxY  VIII. 

THE    GOVERNMENT    AND    DISCIPLINE    OP    A    SCHOOL. 

A  TEACHER  who  loves  his  school,  and  addresses 
his  pupils  with  a  smiling  countenance  and  a  pleasant 
tone  of  voice,  exerts  a  much  happier  influence  than 
he  does  who  governs  by  blows  and  punishments. 
He  who  allures  his  pupils  into  rectitude  and  industry 
by  an  agreeable,  winning  address,  holds  a  very  dif- 
ferent relation  to  them  than  he  would  have  by  excit- 
ing fear  and  using  severity.  It  is  the  influence  ob- 
tained over  pupils  by  kindness  and  sympathy  that 
produces  the  highest  kind  of  obedience. 

It  is  a  government  of  goodness  and  affection  that 
disciplines  the  moral  feelings  of  the  subjects  ;  and 
it  is  the  lively  interest  and  tenderness  felt  by  a 
teacher  for  the  happiness  and  improvement  of  his 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  95 

pupils  which  exert  that  Idnd  of  influence  that  is  con- 
stantly carrying  on  a  moral  discipline.  A  teacher 
who  has  the  confidence  and  love  of  his  scholars  may 
almost,  if  not  entirely,  dispense  with  his  "  rules'' 
and  his  "  ferules  ;"  his  government  is  a  moral  one , 
one  that  fulfils  the  law  without  seeing  or  knowing  it. 

A  love  of  doing  right,  because  it  is  right,  is  the 
motive  to  obedience  ;  and  the  ability  and  habit  of 
governing  themselves  are  soon  acquired,  and  the 
regulations  of  the  teacher  are  no  longer  necessary. 
Each  one  now  feels  that  his  progress  and  reputation 
depend  upon  his  own  exertions,  and  upon  his  own 
moral  discernment  in  perceiving  what  is  right. 

Scholars  who  are  taught  and  trained  in  this  man- 
ner govern  themselves.  The  teacher's  authority  is 
superseded  by  the  love  of  right ;  his  business  now  is 
to  improve  the  mind.  This  is  the  result  of  correct 
moral  discipline  ;  and  this  should  be  the  government 
and  discipline  of  every  school. 

The  very  end  and  object  of  all  government 
should  be  to  make  men  govern  themselves.  Just 
so  far  as  government  falls  short  in  producing  this 
effect,  it  is  defective.  Laws  should  so  command 
what  is  right,  and  forbid  what  is  wrong,  as  to  give  a 
moral  discernment  of  that  course  of  conduct  which 
leads  to  the  happiness  of  the  individual.  Thus,  the 
right  way  being  perceived,  and  the  individual  being 
conscious  that  this  way  produces  the  greatest  amount 
of  happiness,  the  laws  which  first  gave  this  percep- 
tion, and  pointed  out  this  way,  are  in  a  great  mea- 
sure useless  and  set  aside.  The  individual  now 
governs  himself:  and  this  should  be  the  end  of  law, 
whether  national,  municipal,  or  that  which  is  made 
for  the  school-room. 

A  teacher,  instead  of  enforcing  the  observance  of 
his  laws,  should  be  labouring  to  make  his  pupils 
understand  what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong,  and  the 
certain  consequences  of  doing  right,  and  the  natural 


96  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

and  inevitable  consequences  of  doing  wrong  ;  or  in 
other  words,  there  should  be  such  a  moral  discipline 
going  on,  that  the  pupils  will  soon  be  capable  and 
desirous  of  governing  themselves. 

Each  scholar,  then,  will  not  only  be  jealous  of  his 
own  good  conduct,  but  of  the  good  conduct  of  each 
member  of  the  school.  Each  scholar  will  feel  a 
lively  interest  in  the  order  and  operations  of  the 
school.  He  will  become  a  part  of  the  whole,  and 
will  feel  the  same  general  interest  that  the  teacher 
feels.  This  interest  the  teacher  should  always  secure. 
It  will  make  his  government  easy  and  popular. 

A  teacher  should  govern  his  scholars  as  rational 
and  moral  beings.  They  are  as  capable  of  perceiv- 
ing a  distinction  between  truth  and  falsehood,  and 
right  and  wrong,  as  he  is — perhaps  more  so.  After 
we  have  lived  in  this  world  of  error  and  prejudice 
twenty  or  thirty  years,  our  moral  and  intellectual 
powers  are  apt  to  become  disordered,  and  deceive 
us.  But  a  child  is  fresh  from  that  Hand  which  has 
written  the  law  of  truth  upon  the  heart,  and  made 
him  capable  of  discerning  between  good  and  evil, 
and  between  merit  and  demerit. 

You,  as  a  teacher,  are  unfolding  their  mental 
powers,  that  they  may  reason  and  reflect :  then  give 
them  an  opportunity  of  exercising  this  reason,  and 
of  making  reflections  upon  their  actions  and  upon 
what  they  learn.  Let  them  commence  this  work 
with  you,  and  make  some  use  of  your  instructions. 
Do  not  teach  them  that  they  are  made  to  think  and 
reflect,  and  at  the  same  time  treat  them  as  though 
they  were  machines,  unable  to  think  or  reason. 

Let  your  scholars  see  that  you  believe  they  have 
such  powers,  in  the  exercise  of  which  you  tell  them 
their  chief  dignity  consists.  Let  the  force  of  their 
desires,  appetites,  and  passions  be  controlled  by 
their  reason  while  they  remain  with  you,  that  they 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  97 

may  be  under  the  same  control  when  they  are  left 
to  take  care  of  themselves.* 

Why  are  children  so  volatile,  and  obdurate,  and 
dull,  and  full  of  mischief?  Is  it  not,  in  some  mea- 
sure, because  all  natural  and  lawful  exercise  of  the 
mind  is  denied  them  ?  Their  minds  will  be  active, 
and  if  they  are  not  allowed  to  reason,  they  will 
study  to  evade  ;  if  they  are  not  permitted  to  see 
the  justness  of  your  command,  is  it  strange  that 
they  should  be  obdurate  ?  Many  of  your  pupils 
will  have  mature  judgments,  and  all  of  them  unso- 
phisticated ones ;  and  on  matters  within  the  scope 
of  their  understandings  you  should  appeal  to  them 
for  decisions. 

I  know  that  with  some  scholars  you  must  use 
force;  but,  in  the  first  place,  try  the  influence  of  per- 
suasion and  reason.  I  am  aware,  that  it  is  much 
easier  and  quicker  to  give  a  blow  than  a  reason  ; 
but  one  reason  may  secure  longer  obedience  than 
five  hundred  blows.  A  government  of  force  exists 
only  where  the  eye  of  the  teacher  is  resting.  A 
government  of  reason  is  always  looking  at  the  chil- 
dren, and  they  at  it.  True  it  is,  that  the  teacher 
must  have  authority ;  he  is  the  governor  of  his  little 
republic,  and  must  be  obeyed.  But  as  far  as  reason 
can  transfer  this  authority  to  the  scholars,  the  teacher 
should  be  willing  to  relinquish  it ;  it  will  govern 
for  him. 

Punishments  will  sometimes  be  found  necessary. 
But  severe  punishment  should  be  used  with  great 
care.     It  should  have  peculiar  reference  to  the  cha- 

*  Our  principal  aim,  in  each  kind  of  instruction  is,  to  induce 
the  young  men  to  think  and  judge  for  themselves.  We  are 
opposed  to  all  mechanical  study  and  servile  transcripts.  The 
masters  of  our  primary  schools  must  possess  intelligence 
themselves,  in  order  to  be  able  to  awaken  it  in  their  pupils ; 
otherwise,  the  state  would  doubtless  prefer  the  less  expensive 
schools  of  Bell  and  Lancaster. — Cousin's  Report, 
I 


98  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

racter  of  the  pupil,  so  as  not  to  awaken  a  spirit  of 
bitterness  or  defiance,  or  dislike  to  study.  I  think 
that  punislimcnt,  as  much  as  possible,  should  be 
mental  instead  of  being  corporal. 

But  whenever  they  are  necessary,  and  whatever 
kind  may  be  inflicted,  they  should  answer  their  end. 
The  end  of  punishment  should  be  to  prevent  a  repe- 
tition of  the  offence  ;  but  the  kind  and  degree  of 
punishment  that  is  generally  awarded,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  is  usually  inflicted,  come  far  short 
of  securing  this  end.  The  only  effect  of  punishment, 
in  too  many  cases,  is  the  excitement  of  the  bad 
passions  of  the  pupil.  And  when  such  passions  are 
frequently  inflamed,  the  character  is  forming,  and 
becoming  fixed,  under  the  most  unhappy  circum- 
stances. 

I  believe  that  much  of  the  malignity  of  men  has 
its  origin  in  the  injudicious  punishment  of  children. 
When  the  teacher  finds  it  necessary  to  correct  a  scho- 
lar, he  should  exercise  his  judgment  in  determining 
the  nature  and  the  degree  of  punishment  which  the 
peculiarities  of  the  individual  require  ;  he  should 
likewise  administer  it  in  that  manner  which  the 
nature  of  the  offence,  and  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  character  of  the  offender,  may  seem  to  prescribe. 

There  is  at  present  a  great  deal  of  corporal  punish- 
ment in  our  district  schools ;  and  I  am  afraid  that 
but  very  little  of  it  answers  the  end  for  which  it 
should  be  given.  The  fear  of  doing  wrong  for  the 
time,  and  hatred  to  the  teacher  and  the  school,  are, 
too  frequently,  the  results  of  corporal  punishments ; 
and  I  think  that  teachers  should  consider  this  part 
of  school  government  with  more  care  than  they 
have  hitherto  done."* 

*  But  let  the  masters  never  forget,  that  the  severest  mea- 
sures of  discipline  should  be  pervaded  by  a  sentiment  of  ten- 
derness and  love,  which  chastises  only  to  improve. — Cousin's 
Report, 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  99 

Punishments  should  seldom,  if  ever,  be  inflicted 
before  the  school.  The  fear  of  being  laughed  at, 
or  called  a  fellow  of  "no  spunk,"  will  prevent  the 
criminal  from  yielding  as  soon  as  he  would  other- 
wise do,  if  his  pride  was  not  touched  by  the  presence 
of  his  associates.  When  the  criminal  is  arraigned 
before  the  school,  he  will  be  less  inclined  to  confess 
his  fault  and  ask  the  forgiveness  of  the  teacher. 

There  should  be  no  check  upon  the  child's  dispo- 
sition to  yield  or  to  make  confession  ;  on  the  con- 
trary, all  the  circumstances  should  favour  this  dis- 
position. The  teacher  should  take  the  offenders 
aside,  where  they  may  be  unseen  and  unheard,  and 
then  show  them  the  nature  of  the  offence,  its  con- 
sequences upon  the  school  and  upon  its  author.  If 
he  finds  punishment  necessary,  he  should  administer 
it  with  calmness  and  affection  ;  convincing  the  pupil 
that  he  is  pained  because  his  teacher  loves  him. 

Crimes  which  are  common  to  many  of  the  scho- 
lars may  be  made  known  and  corrected  before  the 
school.  Such  as  the  use  of  profane  language,  lying, 
quarrelling,  and  disrespect.  These  crimes  the  teacher 
should  publicly  reprimand.  Public  opinion  ought 
to  regard  them  in  such  a  light,  that  they  would  be 
at  all  times,  and  in  all  places,  the  greatest  disgrace 
to  their  authors.  The  teacher  should  frequently 
describe  that  conduct  which  ensures  happiness  and 
esteem,  and  the  opposite,  which  brings  misery  and 
disgrace. 

He  should  show  the  scholars  the  effect  of  habit, 
and  the  influence  it  has  in  prompting  them  to  right 
or  wrong  actions.  He  can  tell  his  pupils,  that  the 
best  way  to  find  out  what  they  will  be  is  to  inquire 
what  they  are  now,  and  that  their  conduct,  by  the 
time  they  are  twenty  years  old,  will  have  fixed  their 
character  for  life.  Instructions  of  this  kind  from 
the  teacher  are  very  desirable  ;  yes,  I  may  say, 
absolutely  necessary. 


100  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

The  teacher  ought  to  show  his  scholars  that  he  is 
acting  under  moral  obligations — that  he  is  governed 
by  just  laws,  and  that  he  feels  and  wishes  to  do  his 
duty.  This  will  secure  him  obedience  and  respect; 
it  will  make  the  scholars  unwilling  to  injure  his 
feelings,  or  to  give  him  any  unnecessary  trouble. 
The  government  should  be  impartial.  The  larger 
scholars  of  the  school  rendering  the  same  obedience 
that  is  required  of  the  smaller  ones  ;  the  dull  and 
the  backward  receiving  the  same  attention  that  is 
given  to  the  sprightly  and  more  advanced. 

The  children  of  those  parents  who  are  in  humble 
circumstances  put  upon  the  same  equality  with  the 
more  favoured.  Justice  and  impartiality  appearing 
in  whatever  the  teacher  says  or  does.  This  will 
secure  the  friendship  of  all,  and  prevent  those  com- 
plaints, dissatisfactions,  and  divisions  which  are  now 
so  common  in  our  district  schools. 

A  teacher  should  have  the  same  government  over 
himself  out  of  school,  that  he  has  in  school.  I  have 
seen  many  teachers  lose  the  respect  of  their  pupils 
by  frivolous,  improper  conduct  while  out  of  school. 
This  is  to  be  lamented  by  all.  Inconsistency  of 
character  always  destroys  a  man^s  influence  ;  and 
no  one  will  see  it  sooner  than  a  scholar  when  ex- 
hibited in  his  teacher.  The  scholar  has  been  con- 
victed of  impropriety,  and  now  will  be  on  the  watch 
to  detect  the  same  fault  in  his  teacher.  This  should 
make  teachers  more  circumspect.  They  may  have 
a  wise  government  in  school,  but  counteract  all  its 
influence  by  their  boyish  or  unsuitable  conduct  while 
out. 

The  government  of  a  school  should  be  regular 
and  systematical.  Children  love  system.  They 
are  delighted  with  order  and  regularity ;  and  the 
benefit  of  the  school  will  depend  very  much  upon 
the  teacher's  having  a  time  for  every  thing,  and 
every  thing  in  its  time.     Every  scholar,  also,  should 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  lOJ 

have  his  place,  and  every  6ne  siiould  he  in  his  place. 
By  such  arrangenifents,  the  i",nstrd(]tt?iV,w^ll -'accom- 
plish more  in  ten  m mUtcS  tKah  he  woulcT  Tri  an  hour 
without  system.  The  government  in  our  district 
schools  is  not  as  systematical  as  it  ought  to  be  ;  many 
of  them  are  miserably  deficient  in  this  important 
part. 

For  this  defect  there  are  two  reasons  which  ap- 
pear to  be  the  main  ones.  The  first  is,  in  such  a 
changing,  discordant  scene,  it  is  difficult  to  establish 
and  sustain  order  and  system;  and  in  the  second 
place,  the  most  of  teachers  have  but  very  little  sys- 
tem in  their  own  thoughts  and  life.  But  I  know 
of  no  employment  where  the  want  of  order  and 
system  is  productive  of  so  much  injury,  as  it  is  in 
the  government  of  a  school.  Nothing,  or  next  to 
nothing,  can  be  done  without  them.  They  only 
can  prevent  confusion  and  much  needless  waste  of 
time. 

Teachers  should  never  threaten.  As  soon  as  you 
threaten  you  commit  yourself  You  cannot  exercise 
your  judgment  in  the  next  offence,  but  you  must 
punish,  let  the  circumstances  be  what  they  may. 
By  scolding,  you  show  your  weakness;  and  by 
threatening,  your  injustice  to  the  present,  and  your 
slavery  to  the  future. 

How  seldom  are  threats  executed  !  The  teacher 
does  not  intend  to  execute  them  at  the  time  they 
are  foolishly  made.  He  makes  them  to  frighten 
for  a  moment,  but  not  to  remember  them.  But  is 
not  this  something  more  than  a  white  lie  ?  Is  it 
not  the  very  worst  example  for  children,  who  are 
generally  so  prone  to  tell  what  is  not  true  ?  More 
care,  much  more  should  be  used  by  teachers  in  this 
part  of  their  conduct  and  government. 

A  government  should  not  be  severe  at  one  tijne, 
and  lax  at  another.  A  teacher  is  very  apt  to 
govern  as  he  happens  to  feel.  If  he  is  a  little  un- 
I  2 


102  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

well,  or  has  met  with'*  some  ui^pleasant  circumstance, 
he  is  inoli.Q'id;  to  he  hasty  and  severe;  he  docs  not 
make  thcsj  kliOv^/anee's  wb,i;<h  fje.  does  at  other  times, 
and  works  off  the  bad  humour,  which  has  been 
caused  by  something  foreign  to  the  school,  on  some 
little  offence  of  one  of  the  scholars.  This  capricious- 
ness  renders  his  government  unpopular,  and  makes 
the  pupils  suppose  that  their  punishment  is  bad  for- 
tune instead  of  justice.  They  will  not  be  willing 
to  submit  to  this  freakish  authority,  and  will  be 
more  inclined  to  dispute  than  to  obey  A  govern- 
ment should  always  be  uniform.* 

Teachers  in  their  government  should  exercise 
much  charity.  They  should,  indeed,  have  that 
charity  "which  suffereth  long,  and  is  kind,"  and 
"  which  is  not  easily  provoked."  Those  who  teach 
will  meet  with  many  unpleasant  scenes — with  many 
provoking  things ;  but  they  must  learn  to  forgive, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  reprove  with  firmness,  yet 
in  love. 

The  government  and  discipline  of  a  school  should 
have  particular  regard  to  the  manners  of  the  scho- 
lars. Very  little  attention  is  given  in  our  district 
schools  to  this  important  part  of  education.  I  say 
important,  for  manners  are  something  with  all,  and 
every  thing  with  some.  I  must  say,  and  it  is  with 
reluctance,  that  the  American  people  have  too  great 
a  disregard  (may  I  not  almost  say  contempt)  for 
what  is  called  "  politeness." 

As  soon  as  this  word  is  mentioned  to  some,  hy- 
pocrisy, affectation,  and  hollow  civility  dance  in 
their   fancy,  and   they   immediately    suppose   that 

*  Fixed  laws  give  to  an  institution  a  steady  course,  protect 
the  weaker  against  caprice  and  tyranny,  prevent  mistakes  and 
precipitation,  and,  what  is  more  important  for  the  future,  they 
show  in  a  clear  and  striking  manner  the  necessity  of  laws  for 
the  commonwealth,  and  train  youth  to  a  reasonable  and  willing 
obedience  to  them. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  103 

every  one  who  is  polite  is  insincere,  a  dandy,  and  a 
fellow  of  great  pretensions,  without  the  least  worth. 
They  think  that  politeness  and  honesty  can  never 
be  united ;  and  hence  they  have  suspicions  of  every 
one  who  is  not  as  rough  and  blunt  as  they  are. 
Therefore  they  take  no  pains  to  improve  their  own 
manners,  or  to  correct  the  indecencies  and  clownish- 
ness  of  their  children  or  associates. 

The  manners  and  address  of  the  teacher  never 
undergo  inspection;  they  are  probably  never  thought 
of,  unless  they  are  a  little  cultivated,  and  then,  per- 
haps, they  are  set  down  to  his  disadvantage.  This 
is  not  always  so,  but  it  is  too  often.  We,  as  a  peo- 
ple, have  too  much  selfishness,  too  much  cold  inde- 
pendence. We  are  too  indifferent  to  those  little 
things  and  decencies  upon  which  the  most  of  our 
happiness  is  placed.  In  our  intercourse  with  each 
other,  there  are  a  thousand  attentions  and  civilities 
which  greatly  increase  our  enjoyment,  and  which 
cost  us  neither  time  nor  money. 

This  all  know,  and  all  acknowledge;  and  it  is  to 
be  regretted  that  so  little  attention  is  paid  to  the 
manners  of  the  children  in  our  district  schools.  It 
is  true,  they  are  taught,  in  some  places,  to  pull  off 
their  hats,  and  to  pitch  the  head  towards  the  ground 
when  a  neighbour  or  a  stranger  passes  or  enters  the 
school.  And  this  is  the  whole  amount  of  their  in- 
structions. 

If  they  obey  orders  in  this,  by  making  prepara- 
tion for  some  time  before  the  traveller  comes  up, 
and  by  repeating  the  bow  or  courtesy  three  or  four 
times,  they  have  learned  sufficient,  and  are  looked 
upon  as  "patterns  of  politeness."  Chastity  of 
thought  and  language^  and  graceful  7nanners, 
are  seldom  required.  It  is  painful  in  the  extreme 
to  witness  the  uncouthness  and  vulgarity  which  is 
licensed  by  some  teachers';  for  to  be  silent  on  the 
subject  gives  a   license.     I   know   that   there   are 


104  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

many  teachers  who  are  honourable  exceptions,  and 
I  wish  there  were  more.  A  proper  degree  of  atten- 
tion to  the  convenience  and  happiness  of  others 
is  no  small  virtue.  It  is  a  duty  which  is  binding 
on  all. 

Teachers  should  strive  to  make  their  pupils  agree- 
able companions,  pleasing  in  their  address,  and  cour- 
teous in  their  conversation.  They  should  be  careful 
to  see  that  the  intercourse  of  their  pupils,  while  at 
school,  is  of  this  character.  If  such  a  habit  is  form- 
ed there,  it  will  be  natural  and  easy  for  them  to  be 
so  when  away  from  school.  The  teacher  may  do 
much  in  this  branch  of  his  duty  by  watching  over 
his  own  manners  and  feelings.  The  children  will 
naturally  copy  from  him.  What  I  have  said  on  this 
subject  is  well  meant,  and  I  trust  it  will  be  as  well 
received. 

Teachers  also  may  pay  more  attention  to  the  lan- 
guage which  their  scholars  use.  Wrong  pronuncia- 
tion and  bad  grammar  appear  in  almost  every  sen- 
tence. Teachers  should  notice  this,  and  correct 
whatever  may  be  wrong  or  inelegant.  The  scholars 
should  be  taught  to  express  themselves  with  ease 
and  propriety.  It  will  greatly  assist  them  in  think- 
ing correctly  and  forcibly,  and  it  will  prevent  them 
from  being  misunderstood. 


SECTION  IX. 

THE    RESPONSIBILITY    OF    TEACHERS. 

Among  all  the  offices  and  stations  which  men  are 
called  to  fill  in  society,  there  is  no  one  that  brings 
greater  responsibility  than  the  teacher's.  If  we  con- 
sider the  qualifications  which  are  requisite  from  the 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  105 

nature  and  difficulties  of  his  employment,  or  the 
effect  of  the  impressions  and  principles  which  the 
scholars  will  receive  from  the  teacher,  we  shall  look 
upon  his  office  as  connected  with  the  most  fearful 
accountability.  The  teacher  is  placed  with  immor- 
tal beings,  who  have  just  commenced  their  exist- 
ence, and  who  have  neither  the  warnings  of  expe- 
rience nor  the  restraints  of  judgment ;  yet  are 
rushing  forward,  reckless  and  susceptible,  at  the 
mercy  of  the  various  causes  and  influences  which 
they  are  daily  under. 

Their  ignorance  must  be  instructed,  their  mental 
faculties  developed,  and  those  opinions  and  princi- 
ples inculcated  which  will  fix  the  character  for  life. 
The  pliable  natures  of  children  are  moulded  and 
shaped  by  their  education;  and  this  is  committed 
to  the  care  of  the  schoolmaster.  I  believe  that  in- 
structers  seldom  reflect  upon  the  extent  and  nature 
of  their  influence  with  the  susceptible  minds  of  their 
pupils. 

They  frequently  assume  the  office  of  teaching, 
with  no  other  consideration  than  that  the  employ- 
ment will  be  less  arduous  than  some  other  avoca- 
tion, which  otherwise  would  be  more  agreeable  to 
their  feelings.  They  perceive  not  the  effect  which 
all  their  feelings,  opinions,  and  actions  will  have 
upon  minds  which  are  growing  into  character,  and 
which  will  soon  be  placed  where  they  will  act  upon 
other  minds. 

Not  reflecting  upon  the  lasting  and  coptrolling 
influence  of  their  example  and  instructions,  they  do 
not  see  or  feel  the  responsibility  of  their  station. 
Thus  they  form  and  fix  the  characters  of  rational 
and  immortal  beings  with  as  much  indifference  as 
tKey  would  manifest  in  raising  food  for  the  body 
that  will  quickly  return  to  dust,  or  in  manufacturing 
an  article  of  clothing  that  is  soon  to  perish  with  the 
usage. 


106  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

From  the  present  and  unending  consequences  of 
acting  upon  the  young  and  pliant  mind,  I  can  think 
of  no  one  who  should  have  closer  or  more  serious 
self-inspection  than  the  teacher.  Yet,  how  often  do 
we  meet  with  teachers  as  ignorant  of  themselves  as 
they  are  of  their  business !  They  have  supposed 
teaching  to  be  an  easy  task,  because  they  saw  not 
its  duties  and  obligations.  They  rashly  and  fear- 
lessly offered  themselves  as  members  of  the  mos^ 
difficult  and  responsible  of  all  professions,  (for  that 
which  forms  the  characters  of  men  is  such,)  because 
they  neither  understood  themselves,  nor  saw  the 
momentous  relations  which  exist  between  teacher 
and  scholar. 

Let  candidates,  then,  for  this  profession,  reflect 
upon  the  influential  and  accountable  nature  of  the 
teacher's  office;  let  them  learn  beforehand  something 
of  its  labours,  difficulties,  and  fearful  responsibilities. 
Teaching,  then,  will  not  be  chosen  to  gratify  a  feel- 
ing of  indolence,  nor  undertaken  without  some  dis- 
trust in  present  qualifications,  accompanied  with  a 
hearty  desire  for  further  improvement. 

The  responsibility  of  a  teacher  is  increased  hy  an 
original  pi^inciple  in  children  to  imitate.  Chil- 
dren delight  in  every  species  of  imitation,  and  by  it 
they  make  their  first  acquisitions.  A  change  in  the 
countenance  of  the  teacher  will  be  imitated  by  the 
scholars.  If  he  laughs,  so  will  they;  if  the  teacher 
yawns  and  mopes,  so  will  the  scholars.  From  this 
strong  and  universal  principle  to  imitate,  even  the 
teacher's  gait,  and  pronunciation,  and  address,  will 
be  closely  copied  by  his  pupils. 

It  was  said  by  one  who  had  closely  read  many 
pages  in  the  book  of  human  nature,  that  "  Either 
wise  bearing  or  ignorant  carriage  is  caught,  as  men 
take  diseases,  one  of  another;  therefore  let  men  take 
heed  to  their  company.'^*  While  the  organs  of  the 
*  Shakspeare. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  107 

body  are  pliable,  and  the  muscles  flexible,  we  would 
say,  let  parents  take  heed  to  their  children'* s 
tutors. 

This  proneness  or  propensity  to  imitate  is  so 
strong  in  children,  that  they  always  have  the  pecu- 
liarities of  their  associates.  And  whose  manners 
and  habits  are  so  constantly  before  them  as  the 
teacher's?  Thus  the  teacher  is  giving  character  to 
his  scholars  by  his  every  look  and  action.  He  is 
not  only  responsible  for  what  he  teaches,  but  for 
every  emotion  of  the  mind  and  movement  of  the 
body.  The  sympathetic  nature  of  emotions  and 
passions  is  such,  that  the  teacher's  feelings  will,  in 
a  measure,  become  the  feelings  of  his  scholars. 

If  he  is  uncouth  in  his  appearance,  awkward  in 
his  address,  and  of  an  ill-natured  and  fretful  dispo- 
sition, his  scholars,  to  a  great  extent,  will  resemble 
him  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  if  he  is  easy  in  his 
manners,  calm,  generous,  and  noble  in  his  disposi- 
tion, his  scholars  will  insensibly  imitate  these  desira- 
ble qualities.  Whatever  the  teacher  may  be,  he 
will  give  his  own  character  to  his  pupils.  Scholars 
always  look  up  to  the  teacher  as  their  model.  To 
them,  whatever  has  the  teacher's  approval  is  right. 
He  is  their  criterion  and  their  example.  How  won- 
derfully does  this  reverence,  and  this  proneness  to 
imitate,  increase  the  teacher's  responsibility. 

This  principle  of  imitating  the  conduct  and  man- 
ners of  others  was  implanted  for  wise  purposes,  and 
may  be  turned  to  a  good  account.  Says  Dugald 
Stewart,  "  How  many  are  the  accomplishments 
which  children  might  acquire  insensibly  by  imita- 
tion, merely  from  the  habitual  sight  of  good  models, 
and  which  may  thus  be  rendered  to  them  a  second 
nature^  instead  of  consuming  their  time  afterwards 
as  arts  which  are  to  be  systematically  studied ! 
Of  this  kind,  manifestly,  is  every  thing  connected 
with  grace,  both  in  utterance  and  in  gesture  j  attain- 


108  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

ments  which  become  altogether  impossible,  when 
their  place  has  once  been  occupied  by  perverse 
habits,  caught  from  the  contagion  of  early  example, 
and  too  deeply  rooted  in  the  frame  to  be  eradicated 
afterwards  by  any  speculative  conviction  of  the 
ridicule  attending  them." 

Not  only  are  bad  manners  caught  from  others, 
which  cost  us  much  time  and  expense  to  lay  aside, 
but  so  ready  are  we  to  do  what  others  do,  that  I 
think  it  will  not  be  extravagant  to  say,  that  bad  ex- 
ample has  been  the  cause  of  as  much  evil  in  this 
world  as  depravity  itself.  We  know  that  most  of 
the  knowledge  which  children  possess  is  acquired  by 
imitating  ;  while  young,  they  learn  but  little  from 
precept.  %/2uthority  and  imitation  are  the  tivo 
great  educators  of  every  'people. 

Thus  every  one  who  associates  with  children,  as 
well  as  with  teachers,  should  be  careful  to  give  their 
authority  to  such  things  only,  as  are  wise,  just,  and 
good,  and  at  the  same  time  to  lead  lives  which  will 
make  good  models  for  the  young  to  imitate.  Parents, 
and  teachers,  and  every  adult  person,  have  more  in- 
fluence upon  children  by  example  than  they  com- 
monly suppose.  For  this  reason  I  have  said  more 
on  the  principle  of  imitation  than  some  may  think 
necessary. 

Teachers  are  under  a  high  responsibility,  since 
to  them,  parents  have  committed  the  education 
of  their  children.  They  have  voluntarily  under- 
taken to  assist  parents  in  one  of  their  most  important 
duties,  and  the  parent  has  confided  a  trust  in  them, 
of  the  highest  nature.  Parents  have  incurred  con- 
siderable expense  in  furnishing  means  for  their 
children's  education ;  and  these  means  they  have 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher.  Whatever  these 
may  be,  the  teacher  promises  to  use  them  for  the 
best  interest  of  his  scholars. 

Faithfulness  here  is  expected  from  the  employers. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  109 

as  well  as  promised  by  the  instructer.  Industry, 
honesty,  and  a  good  judgment,  are  all  requisite  to 
make  a  full  and  faithful  discharge  of  this  engage- 
ment. Parents  make  many  sacrifices  that  their 
children  may  receive  an  education ;  they  wish  them 
to  become  intelligent  and  respectable  ;  and  they  feel 
a  high  interest  in  the  improvement  of  their  minds 
and  morals. 

But  the  benefit  of  the  privileges  which  they  give 
their  children,  and  the  realization  of  their  wishes, 
depend,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  manner  in 
which  the  teacher  performs  what  is  justly  expected 
from  him.  So  far  as  he  has  the  opportunity  of  pre- 
paring the  child  to  meet  the  parent's  hopes,  he  is 
bound  to  do  it ;  and  while  the  children  are  with  him, 
he  is  responsible  for  the  manner  in  which  they  im- 
prove their  time. 

The  happiness  of  parents  depends  very  much 
upon  the  character  and  conduct  of  their  children. 
But  this  character  and  conduct  the  teacher  has  taken 
upon  himself  to  form  and  direct.  He  has  said, — I 
will  qualify  your  children,  as  far  as  the  improve- 
ment of  their  minds  and  the  effect  of  good  morals 
will  go,  to  be  not  only  skilful  in  their  future  occu- 
pations, but  to  be  dutiful  and  intelligent  members 
of  the  family. 

Those  parents,  who  have  been  privileged  with  a 
limited  education  only,  and  who  are  compelled  to 
devote  all  their  time  to  support  their  family,  are 
obliged  to  trust  their  children's  education  almost 
entirely  with  the  teacher.  Among  mechanics  and 
agriculturists,  children  receive  but  very  little  in- 
struction at  home.  They  are  sent  to  school  a  short 
time,  and  Ihe  instructions  of  the  schoolmaster  are 
nearly  all  they  ever  receive.  How  deeply  respon- 
sible is  the  teacher,  when  the  parent  must  commit 
to  him  the  entire  education  of  his  children  ! 

Again,  another  parent  watches  over  the  education 
K 


110  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

of  his  children  with  the  deepest  solicitude.  He  is 
careful  to  check  every  evil  propensity  ;  he  is  anxious 
that  his  children  imbibe  good  morals  and  receive 
good  principles,  and  he  brings  them  up  to  do  justly, 
to  love  each  other,  and  at  all  times  to  render  strict 
and  willing  obedience.  This  faithful  parent  has 
high  hopes  of  his  children,  for  they  appear  promis- 
ing ;  and,  to  increase  their  advantages,  he  sends  them 
to  school. 

Now  the  teacher,  in  taking  the  care  of  these  chil- 
dren, becomes  deeply  accountable  to  the  parent.  It 
is  the  teacher's  duty  to  exercise  that  watchfulness 
over  them,  which  they  receive  at  home,  lest  the 
school  should  prove  an  injury,  and  not  a  benefit. 
This  vigilance  will  be  necessary,  that  the  new  as- 
sociates and  discipline  of  the  school  be  to  them  a 
good,  and  not  (as  they  are  too  often  with  children 
who  receive  this  attention  at  home)  an  evil.  In 
every  circumstance  the  teacher  is  deeply  responsible 
to  the  parent  for  the  manner  in  which  he  educates 
his  children. 

Society  expects  that  teachers  will  make  chil- 
dren and  youth  social,  honourable,  and  bene- 
volent members.  From  this  just  and  reasonable 
expectation  of  society,  there  is  resting  upon  teachers 
a  deep  responsibility.  The  relations  between  the 
more  aged  members  of  society  and  those  ^vho  have 
the  care  and  education  of  the  rising  part,  are  close, 
and  of  the  highest  interest;  for  the  strength  and 
respectability  of  any  community  rest  with  the  in- 
telligence and  honesty  of  its  youth  ;  with  their  virtue 
and  industry  rest  its  happiness  and  prosperity. 

The  labours,  sacrifices,  and  virtues  of  the  aged 
and  middle-aged,  have  conferred  upon  society,  peace, 
promise,  and  liberty  ;  but  these  blessings  must  now 
be  intrusted  to  the  children  and  youth  who  are  in 
the  hands  and  under  the  government  and  instruction 
of  the   schoolmaster.     How  deeply,  then,  do   the 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  Ill 

teachers'  duties  afiect  tlic  interests  of  society  !  How 
responsible  are  they,  who  have  the  care  of  those 
who  are  not  only  to  make  the  future  communities 
of  the  land,  but  who  will  either  sustain  or  destroy 
the  honour  and  happiness  of  their  fathers. 

We  say,  then,  that  teachers  are  highly  accountable 
to  society  for  the  manner  in  which  they  educate  its 
youth.  The  teacher  is  responsible  to  society,  not 
only  from  having  the  minds  and  morals  of  the  youth 
under  his  direction,  but  also  from  holding  a  station 
so  favourable  for  making  good  members  of  the  social 
community.  His  school  is  society  in  miniature. 
He  may  call  forth  and  train  all  those  feelings  and 
passions  which  will  be  requisite  to  make  good  friends 
and  neighbours  in  after-life. 

Children,  when  together,  exercise  the  same  selfish 
or  social  nature  that  they  will  manifest  in  a  more 
advanced  age  ;  and  from  the  exercises  and  social 
intercourse  of  the  school,  he  may  prepare  them  for 
the  duties  and  social  intercourse  of  society.  This, 
certainly,  greatly  increases  his  obligations,  and  taken 
in  connexion  with  his  influence  in  forming  the  cha- 
racter, must  place  the  teacher  in  such  a  relation  to 
society  that  is,  indeed,  of  high  responsibility. 

Teachers  are  responsible  to  their  country  for 
the  manner  in  lohich  they  educate  her  youth. 
Men,  generally  speaking,  are  good  or  bad  citizens, 
according  to  the  kind  and  degree  of  education  which 
they  have  received  when  young.  The  faithful 
teacher,  who  makes  his  scholars  virtuous  and  intelli- 
gent, fits  them  for  achieving  or  maintaining  their 
political  freedom  :  but  he  who  neglects  their  moral 
and  mental  improvement,  or  inculcates  wrong  prin- 
ciples, is,  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word,  a  traitor 
to  liberty. 

I  know  of  no  one  so  intimately  connected,  not 
only  with  the  liberty  of  this  nation,  but  with  the 
liberty  of  a  world,  as  the  teacher  of  American  youth. 


112  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

With  him,  to  a  great  extent,  rests  the  moral  and 
political  freedom  of  man.  In  what  a  responsible 
relation  then  does  he  stand  to  his  country!  He  is 
forming  the  characters  of  those  who  will  either 
perpetuate  or  destroy  the  free  institutions  of  the 
land.  He  is  giving  that  kind  of  education  that  will 
cause  the  youth  of  the  nation  to  respect  and  sustain 
the  blessings  which  our  fathers  have  conferred,  or 
that  kind,  that  will  disrespect  a  legacy  which  has 
been  obtained  by  their  valour  and  their  blood. 

The  light  and  defence  of  our  literary  institutions; 
the  strength  and  justice  of  our  laws  ;  the  sacredness 
of  our  constitution,  and  the  honour  and  greatness  of 
our  country's  name,  call  upon  every  teacher  of 
American  youth  to  he  faithful  to  his  trust.  They 
expect  from  him  the  blessings  of  their  establishment, 
and  the  continuance  of  their  existence.  The  school- 
houses  of  a  nation  bestow  and  sustain  her  liberty 
and  glory.  The  American  people  have  founded  the 
temple  of  freedom  on  virtue  and  knowledge,  and 
this  foundation  they  expect  their  teachers  and  minis- 
ters to  lay.  If  they  are  loise,  virtuous,  and  faithful, 
the  nation  has  nothing  to  fear ;  but  if  they  are  igno- 
rant and  immoral,  American  freedom  will  perish. 

The  responsibility  of  teachers  is  great,  from  the 
consideration  that  they  will  give  character  to 
future  communities.  As  the  present  generation, 
in  a  great  measure,  determines  and  fixes  the  character 
and  destinies  of  the  generations  that  will  follow,  the 
influence  of  teachers  will  reach  beyond  the  present 
age  ;  it  will  be  felt  on  the  coming  generations,  as 
they  rise  up  one  after  the  other,  till  the  last  moment 
of  time. 

From  those  who  went  before  us  we  received  our 
national  reputation,  our  opinions,  our  government, 
and  our  religion  ;  and  all  these  were  from  the  teach- 
ers of  our  fathers  ;  so,  from  our  teachers  will  those 
who  next  follow,  receive   their  moral  and  political 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  113 

character.  He  ivho  acts  iqwn  ?nind,  fakes  hold  of 
the  future,  and  acts  upon  eternity.  He  who  gives 
shape  and  character  to  one  mind,  goes  wherever  that 
mind  goes,  acts  wherever  that  mind  acts,  and  speaks 
whenever  that  mind  speaks. 

How  accountable,  how  deeply  responsible,  then, 
are  those  who  educate  and  give  character  to  youth  ! 
Teachers  should  think  of  the  nature  of  what  they 
are  called  to  superintend — the  active  immortal 
mind;  and  they  should  reflect  on  the  boundless 
space  which  their  influence  will  go  into. 

Again,  the  responsibility  of  teachers  is  seen  by 
reflecting,  that  the  hajypiness  of  each  scholar,  in  a 
great  measure,  is  in  the  ha?ids  of  the  instrucicr. 
The  Rev.  Samuel  R.  Hall  has  very  justly  said,  in 
his  incomparable  **  Lectures  on  School-keeping," 
"That  the  teacher  has  the  power  of  directing  his 
scholars  in  almost  any  patli  he  chooses  ;  you  may 
lead  them  to  form  habits  of  application  and  industry, 
or,  by  neglecting  them,  permit  them  to  form  those 
of  idleness  and  indiflercnce.  You  may  win  them 
either  to  a  love  of  learning  and  a  respect  for  virtue; 
or,  by  your  negligence  and  unfaithfulness,  you  may 
suffer  them  to  become  regardless  of  both. 

"  You  have  the  power  to  lead  them  to  a  cultivation 
of  the  social  affections,  to  make  them  kind,  benevo- 
lent, and  humane ;  or,  by  your  neglect,  they  may 
become  the  reverse  of  every  thing  that  is  lovely, 
amiable,  and  generous.  It  will  be  greatly  in  your 
power  to  assist  them  in  learning  to  make  nice  dis- 
tinctions in  the  examination  of  moral  conduct,  and 
to  govern  their  own  actions  accordingly  ;  or  you 
may,  by  your  unfaithfulness,  suffer  them  to  contract 
the  habit  of  pursuing,  regardless  of  consequences, 
every  thing  they  desire,  and  opposing  with  temper 
every  thing  that  counteracts  their  wishes." 

And,  lastly,  how  responsible  are  teachers,  since 
their  influence  ivill  reach  into  the  world  ^'that  is 
K  2 


114  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

to  conieP  Whether  scholars,  when  they  are  called 
to  their  final  account,  shall  receive  the  reward  of  the 
righteous  or  the  punishment  of  the  wicked,  will 
depend  very  much  upon  the  moral  and  religious 
influence  of  their  teachers.  Instructors  not  only 
form  a  character  for  this  world,  and  one  that  will  he 
estimated  by  men,  but  likewise  a  character  for 
eternity,  and  one  that  will  be  estimated  by  a  holy 
and  a  righteous  God. 


SECTION  X. 

THE    teacher's    COMPENSATION. 

The  labours  of  a  common  school  teacher  are 
arduous,  difficult,  and  responsible  ;  and  I  know  of  no 
individual  in  the  community  whose  services  are 
more  necessary  or  valuable  than  those  rendered  by 
a  faithful,  well-qualified  teacher.  Those  who  admit 
these  propositions  (and  wc  think  every  reflecting 
man  will)  agree  with  us,  that  labours  at  once  so  try- 
ing and  so  important  should  2i\\w2iyshGivell rewarded. 
But  are  teachers  adequately  remunerated  ? — are 
their  wages  such  as  to  encourage  young  men  to 
qualify  themselves  for  teaching  ? — such  as  to  secure 
men  who  will  make  the  profession  of  teaching 
honourable,  and  our  schools  valuable  ?  We  must 
say  they  are  not. 

Capable,  faithful  teachers  do  not  receive  a  suffi- 
cient compensation.  The  common  school  teacher, 
who  is  employed  for  twelve  successive  months,  does 
not  receive  more  than  eleven  dollars  per  month. 
There  are  a  few  who  get  more  than  this  sum,  yet 
a  greater  number  who  receive  less.  Now  the  com- 
mon labourer,  who  hires  himself  to  the  farmer  by 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  115 

the  month,  gets  as  much  as  the  teacher  ;  and  the 
wages  of  the  mechanic  are  double  the  wages  of  the 
teacher. 

It  is  a  very  common  practice  with  young  men  who 
teach  during  the  winter,  to  labour  on  the  farm  dur- 
ing the  summer  :  and  they  make  this  change  because 
the  summer  wages  of  the  farm  are  more  than  the 
wages  of  the  summer  school.  There  is  no  employ- 
ment among  the  American  people  (what  a  reproach 
to  our  intelligence  and  affluence!)  which  receives 
less  pay  than  elementary  teaching.  Yes,  there  is 
no  service  so  menial,  no  drudgery  so  degrading, 
which  does  not  demand  as  high  wages  as  we  are 
now  giving  for  that  which  is  the  life  of  our  liberty, 
and  the  guard  of  our  free  institutions. 

Our  leading  intelligent  citizens  perceive  this  fact, 
and  they  have  published  it,  and  done  much  to  make 
the  lamentable  truth  known  and  felt  by  every  parent 
and  guardian  in  this  republic  ;  yet,  but  few,  very 
few  consider  it ;  for  even  now,  many  honest  men 
think  that  teachers  have  an  easier  life,  are  better 
paid,  and  better  treated  than  any  other  labouring 
class  in  the  community.  The  great  majority  of  the 
people  do  not  see  that  they  give  no  extra  advantages 
whatever  to  those  who  are  giving  the  nation  its 
education  and  its  character. 

A  young  man  cannot  afford  to  expend  one  cent 
in  making  preparation  to  teach  a  common  school, 
for  his  wages,  as  a  teacher,  will  be  no  more  than 
those  of  a  common  labourer.  All  that  he  pays  for 
knowledge  requisite  to  teach  a  school,  is  lost,  in  a 
pecuniary  point;  for  if  he  did  not  know  how  to 
read,  his  mere  muscular  effort  would  demand  as  high 
wages  as  he  will  be  able  to  get,  after  spending  two 
or  three  years,  and  as  many  hundred  dollars,  in 
qualifying  himself  to  teach. 

The  little  compensation  which  parents  are  dis- 
posed to  give  their  instructers,  offers  no  inducement 


116  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

to  youn<i;  men  to  make  any  preparation  for  teach 
ing.*  The  consequence  is,  that  a  great  number  of 
our  school-houses  are  furnished  with  incompetent 
teachers.  Parents  complain  loudly  of  this  defi- 
ciency ;  but  they  seldom  perceive  the  cause  of  the 
ignorance  and  inexperience  of  teachers. 

They  never  reflect  upon  the  necessary  expenses 
wliich  an  individual  must  incur  by  preparing  him- 
self to  teach,  and  upon  their  own  luiwilliiiqness  to 
pay  an  adequate  comjjensation  to  those  who  are 
qualified.  Parents  cannot  reasonably  expect  excel- 
lence and  ability  if  they  are  unwilling  to  reward 
such  qualities.  If  they  are  disposed  to  pay  teachers 
no  more  than  they  now  pay  them,  they  must  expect 
their  teachers  to  have  the  deficiencies  which  they 
now  complain  of. 

But  few  parents  perceive  the  bad  effects  of  giving 
low  wages  to  teachers.  The  evils  arising  from  this 
ill-judged  parsimony  are  numerous  and  destructive. 
It  prevents  young  men  from  obtaining  proper  quali- 
fications— it  makes  teachers  indifferent  and  unfaith- 
ful in  their  employment — it  makes  them  dislike 
their  business,  and  anxious  for  some  other  occupa- 
tion— it  puts  men  in  our  schools  who  are  lazy  and 
ignorant — it  makes  teaching  a  temporary  business 
for  a  few  idle  months,  and  it  makes  the  teacher's 
profession  low  and  disreputable.  These  are  some 
of  the  evils  which  make  our  schools,  in  a  great 
measure,  useless  to  what  they  might  be,  and  evils 
which  arise  from,  giving  teachers  too  small  a  com- 
pensation. 

If  parents  ivould  give  teachers  a  higher  com- 

*  If  you  would  have  good  masters,  you  must  first  of  all  en- 
sure them  a  maintenance.  The  Prussivm  law  expresses  itself 
on  this  head  in  the  most  solemn  manner.  "It  is  our  firm 
will,"  says  the  king-,  in  whose  name  it  speaks,  "that  in  the 
maintenance  of  every  school,  this  be  regarded  as  the  most  im- 
portant object,  and  take  precedence  of  all  others." — Cousin's 
Report. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  117 

pensation,  it  would  encourage  young  men  to 
qualify  themselves  for  instructing.  In  the  United 
States  men  pursue  science  and  literature  for  a  liveli- 
hood. There  are  but  very  few  whose  circumstances 
are  such  as  to  permit  them  to  seek  knowledge  merely 
to  gratify  a  love  of  letters.  The  most  are  obliged 
to  make  use  of  the  attainments  they  have  made  as 
a  means  to  give  them  a  support.  No  one  will  im- 
prove his  education  beyond  what  is  required  by  the 
common  business  of  life,  unless  he  knows  that  these 
extra  acquisitions  will  be  the  means,  hereafter,  of 
giving  him  higher  wages  for  his  services.  He  can- 
not afford  it. 

If  he  prepares  himself  to  teach  others,  the  taught 
must  be  willing  to  pay  him  for  that  preparation  ; 
for  these  previous  expenses  will  not  be  incurred 
unless  there  is  a  certainty  of  a  future  return.  If  the 
wages  of  teachers  were  higher,  the  candidates  for 
this  profession  could  afford  to  make  a  proportionate 
preparation  for  this  office.  And  hence,  if  parents 
would  improve  the  character  and  usefulness  of  their 
schools,  they  must  be  willing  to  indemnify  teachers 
for  the  extra  expenses  necessarily  incurred  by  mak- 
ing suitable  attainments.  Young  men  will  never 
qualify  themselves  to  teach  until  they  see  this  dis- 
position in  parents. 

But  as  soon  as  a  good  education  is  honoured  and 
rewarded  in  a  teacher,  acquisitions  extensive  and 
suitable  will  be  made.  Reward  the  profession  of 
teaching  as  liberally  as  we.  do  the  profession  of  law 
or  physic,  and  the  teacher  will  be  as  liberal  in  his 
preparation  as  the  lawyer  or  the  physician.  If  we 
have  poor  teachers,  it  is  because  we  give  poor  pay ; 
and  if  we  would  have  better  teachers,  we  must  pay 
better.  Parents  have  it  in  their  own  power,  as  we 
trust  has  been  clearly  shown,  to  raise  the  character 
and  qualifications  of  teachers ;  and  we  shall  now  show 
that  it  would  be  for  the  parent's  interest  to  do  so. 


118  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

Ill  the  first  place,  it  would  be  the  parent's  interest 
to  employ  qualified  teachers,  because  it  would  save 
tuition  money.  Parents  pay  more  money  for  the 
education  of  their  children  by  employing  incom- 
petent instructers,  than  they  would  do  by  employ- 
ing teachers  who  are  competent.  In  the  affliirs  of 
life,  parents  generally  perceive  that  the  cheapest 
article  is  commonly  the  dearest ;  and  those  of  more 
reflection  perceive  that  this  is  always  the  case  in  the 
article  of  teachers. 

A  child,  to  obtain  the  same  amount  of  knowledge, 
must  attend  to  the  instructions  of  a  poor  teacher 
three  times  as  long  as  would  be  necessary  with  a 
good  teacher.  Thus,  if  parents  do  give  but  little  to 
the  teacher,  they  pay  dearly  for  their  children's 
instructions.  If  they  would  secure  the  services 
of  a  qualified  teacher,  by  giving  him  double  the 
price  of  present  wages,  their  school  tax  would  be 
one-third  less  than  it  now  is.  We  think  it  is  clear, 
that  even  in  a  mere  pecuniary  point,  it  would  be  for 
the  interest  of  parents  to  give  a  suitable  compensa- 
tion to  competent  instructers. 

In  the  second  place,  qualified  teachers  would  pro- 
mote the  parent's  interest  by  saving  their  cJiildren^s 
time.  Scholars  under  a  good  teacher  will  be  as  far 
advanced  at  fourteen  years  of  age  as  they  will  be  at 
twenty  under  a  poor  teacher.  The  time  between 
fourteen  and  twenty  could  be  spent  in  learning  a 
useful  trade,  or  in  assisting  the  parent  in  the  main- 
tenance of  the  family.  When  children  arrive  at 
fourteen  years  of  age,  they  should  begin  to  acquire 
habits  of  industry ;  and  at  this  age  their  services 
begin  to  be  of  considerable  value  to  the  parent. 

If  the  child  is  sent  to  school  at  a  proper  age,  a 
faithful,  qualified  teacher  will  have  given  it  a  good 
English  education  at  fourteen.  The  child  is  then 
prepared  to  engage  in  some  useful  employment. 
But  under  the  present  state  of  things,  children  must 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  119 

be  sent  to  school  more  or  less  till  they  are  twenty, 
and  then  they  have  but  a  very  limited  education ; 
not  so  good  a  one  as  they  might  have  at  fourteen 
if  properly  instructed. 

Parents  do  not  perceive  the  time  which  is  lost  by 
employing  incapable  instructers.  The  time  which 
the  children  would  gain,  if  sent  to  a  proper  teacher 
while  young,  would  be  worth  much  more  than  the 
little  extra  expense  of  a  good  school.  Thus  it  would 
be  much  the  cheapest  for  parents  to  engage  the  ser- 
vices of  teachers  who  have  prepared  themselves  for 
their  profession. 

In  the  third  place,  qualified  teachers,  who  would 
be  able  to  govern  correctly,  and  facilitate  the  pro- 
gress of  children,  ivould  save  the  parent  much  ex- 
pense in  books,  paper,  maps,  slates,  <^'C.  The 
school  stationery  of  a  large  family  amounts  to  a  con- 
siderable item  in  the  course  of  a  year.  Parents 
know  that  these  incidental  expenses  are  quite  a  tax; 
and  every  one  would  be  glad  to  have  them  less. 
Now,  the  more  rapid  the  improvement  in  writing, 
the  smaller  the  quantity  of  paper,  pens,  and  ink, 
which  the  child  will  require ;  the  faster  the  scholar 
learns  to  read,  the  fewer  the  books  which  will  be 
necessary ;  and  the  quicker  the  pupils  learn  their 
geography  and  arithmetic,  the  less  the  expense  of 
maps,  slates,  &c. 

Thus  teachers,  who  could  facilitate  the  progress 
of  the  scholars,  would  save  the  parent  much  expense 
in  the  stationery  of  the  school-room ;  and  hence  the 
parent's  interest  would  be  promoted  by  employing 
teachers  whose  wages  must  be  higher  indeed,  but 
whose  qualifications  would  be  such,  that  they  would 
always  be  found  the  cheapest. 

Lastly,  (and  this  every  one  will  think  a  very  im- 
portant consideration,)  teachers  who  have  prepared 
themselves  for  their  profession  are  the  most  profita- 
ble for  parents  to  employ,  because  they  will  then 


120  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

know  that  their  children  will  be  well  educated. 
This  confidence  in  the  instructer  will  prevent  much 
care  and  anxiety  on  the  part  of  the  parent.  Chil- 
dren are  forming  a  character  every  moment ;  and 
their  education,  of  some  kind  or  other,  is  constantly 
going  on  ;  this  parents  know,  and  it  gives  them  great 
pleasure  to  reflect,  that  their  offspring  are  directed 
by  the  skilful,  moral  influence  of  a  fit  teacher.  It 
likewise  gives  the  parents  pleasure  to  reflect  that 
their  children's  progress  in  knowledge  is  thorough 
and  useful. 

With  a  cheap,  unqualified  teacher,  the  pupils  spend 
most  of  their  valuable  time  in  learning  what  they 
must  some  day  or  other  unlearn,  if  they  ever  make 
studious,  correct  scholars.  Parents  frequently  pay 
cheap  instructers  more  for  teaching  their  children 
what  is  wrong  or  useless,  or  must  be  forgotten,  than 
would  be  necessary  to  give  them  a  good  knowledge 
of  elementary  studies,  under  a  suitable  teacher. 
This  useless  expense,  bad  instruction,  and  slow  pro- 
gress, would  never  occur  to  give  the  parent  distress 
and  anxiety,  if  a  faithful,  confidential  teacher  was 
always  engaged.  But  all  these  evils  the  parent  must 
expect,  if  he  is  penurious  and  short-sighted  enough 
to  hire  a  cheap,  worthless  schoolmaster. 

Again,  it  is  common  for  parents  to  have  not  a 
little  trouble  in  persuading  their  children  to  go  to 
school.  Now  this  unwillingness  to  attend  school, 
manifested  by  the  child,  does  not  arise  from  its  dis- 
like to  study,  but  from  the  parents  having  placed  an 
ignorant,  repulsive  man  in  the  school-house.  The 
whole  exercises  of  the  school  are  made  so  unpleasant 
and  disagreeable,  that  the  pupil  heartily  hates  know- 
ledge, and  every  place  ivhere  it  is  taught. 

It  would  save  children  much  unhappiness,  and 
parents  much  labour,  if  an  engaging,  accomplished 
teacher  was  employed  ;  one  who  would  make  the 
school-room  the  most  delightful  and  profitable  room 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  121 

they  could  ever  enter.  But  before  men  can  under- 
stand the  operations  of  the  youthful  mind,  and  im- 
part useful  knowledge  in  an  attractive,  simple  man- 
ner, they  must  be  well  educated,  and  well  instructed 
in  the  art  of  teaching ;  and  this  will  not  be,  until 
parents  reflect,  and  perceive,  that  it  is  for  their 
interest  to  pay  wages  which  will  induce  men  to 
make  the  necessary  preparations. 

If  parents  would  increase  the  teacher's  wages, 
they  would  raise  the  character  of  the  profession. 
The  compensation  for  teaching  is  so  small,  that  ac- 
complished, well-educated  men  can  find  other  em- 
ployments much  more  profitable  than  teaching. 
Thus,  those  who  would  become  useful  instructers, 
and  an  honour  to  the  profession,  are  excluded,  unless 
some  of  these  men  are  willing  to  make  a  sacrifice ; 
and  our  school-houses  are  left  to  be  supplied  by  the 
necessitous  and  unqualified. 

Indolent,  immoral,  and  ignorant  men  are  often 
employed  to  teach  our  common  schools :  these  dis- 
grace the  calling,  and  have  made  the  saying,  "as 
lazy  and  conceited  as  a  schoolmaster,"  familiar  every- 
where. Now,  what  is  it  that  draws  into  our  schools 
the  worthless,  and  excludes  the  worthy  ?  What  is  it 
that  prevents  men  from  becoming  capable  teachers  ? 
What  is  it  that  makes  teaching  disreputable?  Pa- 
rents, is  it  not  your  sordid  avarice,  your  own  short- 
sightedness, and  your  cruelty  to  your  own  children  ? 
By  offering  an  adequate  compensation  to  teachers, 
you  could  demand  learning,  talent,  and  elegance. 

By  a  highminded,  generous  attention  to  your 
children's  education,  you  may  make  the  profession 
of  teaching  take  an  equal  rank  in  usefulness  and 
respectability  with  the  lawyer's  and  the  divine's. 

You  MAY  MAKE  OUR  LITERARY  MEN  FEEL  IT 
THEIR  HIGHEST  AMBITION  TO  BECOME  GOOD  SCHOOL- 
MASTERS. The  honour  of  the  profession  of  teach- 
ing rests  with  you  ;  you  can  continue  its  low  con- 
L 


122  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

dition,  or  you  may  raise  it  to  honour  and  respect- 
ability. 

Parents  cannot  receive  the  advantages  of  the 
school  system,  unless  they  employ  qualified  teach- 
ers. liCgislation  in  many  of  the  states  has  done 
much  for  the  education  of  children.  Large  school 
funds  have  been  raised  to  assist  the  parents,  and  a 
liberal  system  has  been  organized  to  give  union  of 
action  and  instruction  to  the  inhabitants  of  every 
district.  Through  the  vigilance  of  the  public  offi- 
cers, these  princely  funds  may  have  an  etiuitable 
distribution ;  and  the  school  system  be  put  in  active 
operation. 

The  wisdom  of  legislation,  the  watchfulness  and 
counsel  of  learning  and  talent,  are  ready  to  assist  and 
protect  our  schools.  The  great  thing  that  is  wanting 
is  the  co-o])eration  of  j)arents.  Unless  parents  are 
willing  to  unite  their  efforts  with  legislation  and 
official  counsel,  they  will  receive  but  little  aid  from 
the  government.  Great  assistance,  indeed,  may  be 
had  from  the  school  fund  and  the  school  system,  if 
parents  will  make  this  active,  liberal  co-operation  ; 
but  without  this  obligatory  exertion  on  the  part  of 
parents,  the  state  can  do  the'm  but  little  good. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  so  great  a  part  of  the 
school  fund  is  lost  by  being  squandered  on  unquali- 
fied schoolmasters.  Parents,  by  hiring  such  teach- 
ers, pervert  the  benevolence  of  the  state,  and  exclude 
themselves  from  those  advantages  which  the  govern- 
ment wishes  to  give  them.  If  the  funds  were  be- 
stowed on  worthy,  well-qualified  teachers,  the  in- 
habitants of  the  district  would  be  greatly  assisted, 
and  the  spirit  and  intention  of  the  school  law  would 
be  fully  answered. 

But  the  public  funds  are  lost  when  they  support 
men  who  are  rather  an  injury  to  the  schools  than  a 
benefit ;  and  the  parents  voluntarily  deprive  them- 
selves of  that  aid  which  is  so  generously  offered  to 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  123 

all.  We  do  hope  that  parents  hereafter  will  feel 
unwilling  to  pervert  the  government  funds  by 
squandering  them  on  unworthy,  incompetent  teach- 
ers ;  and  that  they  will  be  disposed  to  receive  the 
advantages  of  these  funds  by  engaging  such  teachers 
as  the  law  intended  the  funds  should  support* 

And  finally,  to  emjjloy  well-qualified  teachers 
is  the  only  way  for  parents  to  increase  the  use- 
fulness and  raise  the  character  of  district  schools. 
Parents  may  employ  men  to  recommend  the  best 
systems  of  government,  and  the  best  methods  of 
teaching ;  and  they  may  purchase  the  most  improved 
school  books  for  their  children  ;  they  may  be  atten- 
tive to  their  children's  education  at  home  ;  and  they 
may  do  all  that  can  be  done,  and  after  all,  if  there  is 
an  unfaithful,  disqualified  teacher  in  the  school- 
house,  all  that  is  done,  is  lost,  worse  than  lost  ;  for 
they  have  given  their  children  the  means  of  per- 
verting privileges,  of  learning  error,  and  of  confirm- 
ing bad  habits. 

Let  me,  then,  again  say  to  parents,  if  you  would 
act  according  to  your  own  interest,  even  in  a  pecu- 
niary point ;  if  you  would  encourage  young  men  to 
qualify  themselves  for  teaching  ;  if  you  would  have 
your  children  w^ell  educated ;  if  you  would  have 
them  love  knowledge ;  if  you  would  raise  the  cha- 
racter of  the  teacher's  profession  ;  if  you  would 
make  it  the  highest  ambition  of  literary  men  to 
become  good  schoolmasters  ;  if  you  would  receive 
the  advantages  of  the  school  system,  and  obey  the 
spirit  of  the  school  act,  be  willing  to  give  such  wages 
as  will  secure  the  services  of  faithful,  well-quali- 
fied teachers. 

*  The  excellence  of  a  school  depends  entirely  upon  the 
master;  the  choice  of  the  master  is  therefore  a  matter  of  the 
first  importance. — Cousin's  Report. 


124  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

SECTION  XL 

A    TEACHER    SHOULD    MAKE    HIS    SCHOOL    PLEASANT. 

Children  and  youth  arc  governed  almost  entirely 
by  their  feelings.  They  are  controlled  neither  by 
the  reason  of  maturer  years,  nor  the  habits  of  ad- 
vanced age.  With  the  younc;,  all  is  freshness  and 
curiosity  :  and  nothing  is  so  likely  to  interest  them 
as  novelty  and  change.  A  teacher  who  has  not  only 
to  govern  his  scholars,  but  to  interest  them,  who 
must  amuse  as  well  as  instruct,  sliould  understand 
the  motives  and  principles  of  action  in  the  youth- 
ful mind,  that  he  may  be  able  to  rouse  it  into  acti- 
vity, and  also  to  give  it  its  proper  direction. 

Something  new  will  always  please  and  excite  the 
youthful  mind.  This  truth  the  teacher  may  take 
advantage  of,  to  awaken  dulness  and  indifference  : 
but  he  must,  however,  guard  against  the  love  of 
novelty,  that  he  may  form  habits  of  fixing  the  atten- 
tion on  some  one  subject  till  the  mind  has  mastered 
it.  And  here  teachers  fmd  some  perplexity.  The 
scholars  become  impatient,  before  they  are  thorough. 

The  teacher  wishes  to  continue  the  interest,  and 
to  please  his  pupils  by  letting  them  advance,  but 
knows  that  it  is  for  their  good  (although  he  is  unable 
to  convince  them  of  it)  to  make  slower  progress. 
He  will  have  to  put  a  strong  check  upon  this  ardent 
passion  for  something  new,  and  yet  give  it  sufficient 
latitude  to  keep  up  a  deep  exciting  interest.  To 
preserve  the  mind  in  this  proper  balance  requires 
nice  observation,  much  ingenuity,  and  close  reflec- 
tion. 

Those  who  are  under  the  government  of  their 
feelings  are  greatly  influenced  by  first  impressions. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  125 

The  teacher  should  be  careful  to  have  these  favour- 
able. His  first  appearance  among  the  pupils  should 
be  winning  and  friendly.  If  he  should  be  ill-natured 
and  repulsive  at  first,  it  will  take  a  long  time  to 
eradicate  the  unfavourable  opinions.  The  teacher 
ought  to  meet  his  scholars  with  a  smile,  and  convince 
them  that  he  feels  a  deep  interest  in  their  improve- 
ment and  happiness,  lie  should  not  at  first  repel 
them  by  instantaneous  harshness  and  severity. 

If  a  teacher  loves  his  school,  he  will  make  it 
pleasant;  if  the  duties  are  a  source  of  enjoyment  to 
him,  his  government  and  instruction  will  be  likely 
to  please  his  pupils.  If  he  looks  pleasant,  the  scho- 
lars will.  I  know  of  nothing  that  will  produce  this 
kindness,  attention,  and  good-nature  in  the  teacher, 
but  a  sincere  love  for  his  employment.  Men  are 
generally  agreeable  and  efficient  when  they  labour 
where  they  feel  an  interest  and  a  delight ;  and,  on 
the  contrary,  disagreeable  and  inefficient  in  stations 
which  they  do  not  like. 

No  one  should  teach  except  he  can  sympathize 
with  his  pupils,  and  feel  happy  in  his  duties.  He 
should  be  free  with  his  scholars,  but  not  trifling — 
easy,  but  not  familiar — sociable,  without  levity — a 
companion,  and  yet  a  respected  teacher,  and  a  be- 
loved ruler.  He  should  possess  dignity,  without 
stiffness  or  affectation,  and  be  disposed  to  temper 
justice  with  mercy,  and  duty  with  love. 

The  teacher,  to  make  his  school  pleasant,  should 
strive  to  create  friendship  and  good-will  among 
his  scholars.  The  members  of  the  school  must 
meet  each  other  every  day,  and  spend  the  greater 
part  of  their  time  in  each  other's  society.  In  this 
close  and  constant  intercourse,  the  bad  feelings  will 
be  frequently  aroused,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to 
have  a  large  share  of  good-nature  and  a  forgiving 
spirit  to  prevent  strife  and  hatred  from  rendering  tlie 
school  association,  a  nourivsher  of  the  evil  passions. 
L  2 


126  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  suppress  the  unhappy, 
destructive  passions,  and  to  cultivate  the  sociable 
and  the  benevolent.  He  can  perform  this  duty  by 
producing  love  and  friendship  among  his  pupils 
while  they  are  associated  during  the  hours  of  school. 
It  is  said  that  the  seed  of  evil  and  good  are  planted 
by  schoolmasters  and  mothers.  Their  negligence 
sows  many  of  those  that  are  evil. 

I  think  that  it  will  not  be  doubted  that  many  of 
the  most  malignant  passions  of  men  sprang  up,  and 
received  the  most  fearful  strength  in  the  broils  and 
quarrels  with  schoolmates.  How  necessary  is  it, 
then,  that  the  teacher  should  keep  a  watchful  eye 
over  the  intercourse  of  his  pupils,  and  exert  all  his 
powers  in  preventing  the  exercise  of  the  selfish  na- 
ture, and  in  developing  and  strengthening  the  social 
and  benevolent  feelings. 

But  very  few  teachers  perceive  the  influence 
which  scholars  have  upon  each  other;  and  many, 
very  many,  are  altogether  indifferent  respecting  the 
nature  of  this  influence,  whether  it  be  good  or  bad. 
From  this  negligence  and  indifierence  in  teachers, 
the  growth  of  the  evil  passions  more  than  counter- 
balances the  benefit  of  the  best  instructions.  But, 
if  the  teacher  is  disposed,  he  has  the  opportunity, 
while  strengthening  the  mind  and  furnishing  it  with 
knowledge,  of  cultivating  the  social  and  moral  nature 
of  his  scholars ;  and  this  to  such  an  extent  as  to  give 
them  governing  feelings  and  principles  for  life. 

His  school  is  the  world  in  miniature ;  the  same 
fears  and  hopes,  prejudices  and  partialities,  passions 
and  strifes,  ascendency  and  submission  that  we  see 
in  the  greater  world.  Thus  the  teacher  has  the 
opportunity  for  preparing  his  pupils  for  that  more 
extended  sphere  of  life  which  will  call  into  action 
the  same  feelings  which  were  exercised  in  the  more 
limited. 

He  may,  by  regulating  his  scholars'  intercourse 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  127 

with  each  other,  fit  them  for  becominjj;  useful,  ho- 
noured members  of  society,  or  for  destroying  the 
peace  and  happiness  of  others,  by  the  exercise  of 
those  appetites  and  passions  which  his  negligence 
permitted  to  acquire  strength  and  grow  while  at 
school.  Let  him,  then,  labour  to  make  his  scholars 
love  each  other ;  and  to  feel  that  they  were  made 
social  beings  for  the  purpose  of  making  each  other 
happy. 

The  teacher  can  render  his  school  pleasant,  by 
making  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  the  means 
of  happiness.  The  young  mind  is  delighted  with 
the  discovery  of  something  new  ;  and  it  has  plea- 
sure in  mere  action,  independent  of  the  knowledge 
which  this  action  secures.  The  very  labour  neces- 
sary to  obtain  knowledge,  if  properly  directed,  will 
afford  enjoyment  to  the  mind.  The  teacher,  then, 
should  take  advantage  of  this  love  of  action,  and 
this  desire  of  knowledge,  and  make  them  assist  in 
rendering  his  school  agreeable. 

I  know  of  no  higher  enjoyment  to  the  mind,  than 
its  own  exercise  in  finding  out  new  truths.  The 
reason  that  study  is  made  such  a  task,  and  the  exer- 
cises of  the  school  become  so  irksome,  is,  the  efforts 
of  learners  are  improperly  directed,  and  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  teacher  ill  adapted.  The  scholars  per- 
ceive no  certainty,  nothing  definite  nor  distinct ;  they 
know  not  that  they  make  any  advance  or  any  dis- 
covery.    They  make  nothing  their  own. 

The  teacher's  instructions  are  not  understood,  or 
are  not  of  the  right  kind  for  the  age  and  attainments 
of  the  pupil,  and  consequently  possess  no  interest. 
Hence  the  dislike  which  children  and  youth  have 
for  study.  But  the  mind  was  made  to  love  know- 
ledge as  much  as  the  eye  loves  light,  or  the  lungs 
air,  or  the  stomach  food.  And  the  mind  has  a  much 
more  exquisite  relish  in  acquiring  knowledge  than 
the  sense  of  taste  has   in  preparing  food  for  the 


128  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

stomach.  The  mind  loathes  knowledge  sometimes, 
because  it  is  offered  in  an  unpleasant  manner;  just 
as  the  palate  loathes  food  that  has  been  badly  cooked. 

But  when  the  teacher  prepares  the  mind  for  the 
reception  of  truth,  and  then  instructs  according  to 
the  natural  relations  between  mind  and  knowledge, 
the  schohir  will  ask  for  no  higher  delight  than  that 
which  he  finds  in  his  lesson.  How  often  have  I 
seen  the  countenances  of  children  beam  with  inte- 
rest, and  speak  with  eloquence,  the  gladness  of  their 
hearts  when  something  new  had  been  related.  It  is 
a  pleasure  beyond  all  other  pleasures  to  instruct  the 
young  mind  in  such  a  state. 

And  I  know  of  no  labour  which  affords  so  much 
happiness  as  that  of  the  teacher's,  if  he  is  only  pre- 
pared for  his  business,  and  loves  it.  And  I  know 
of  no  place  that  may  be  made  happier  than  the 
school-room,  if  the  scholars  study  rightly  and  are 
properly  instructed.  The  mind  is  so  formed  that 
the  teacher  may  make  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
the  highest  and  most  ennobling  enjoyment  that  the 
scholar  is  capable  of  receiving. 

He  may  thus  make  the  school-room  the  most  de- 
sirable spot  that  the  children  visit;  and  their  school 
exercises  the  most  pleasant  and  agreeable  of  any  that 
they  engage  in.  I  know  that  many  teachers  are  so 
disqualified,  and  the  systems  of  instruction  so  de- 
fective, that  but  few  scholars  are  blessed  with  this 
skilful  and  happy  treatment ;  but  this  does  not  dis- 
prove the  assertion.  We  think  that  whoever  will 
study  the  nature  of  the  mind,  and  perceive  the  rela- 
tions between  it  and  truth,  will  acknowledge  what 
w^e  have  said  to  be  true.  If  teachers  are  sceptical, 
I  shall  only  solicit  that  they  make  the  experiment. 

A  teacher  may  make  his  school  pleasant  by 
thnely  and  agreeable  recreations.  The  mind 
(and  particularly  the  youthful  mind)  needs  relief 
after  close  application,  even  if  it  should   continue 


DISTRICT   SCHOOL.  129 

but  a  short  time.  If  this  relief  is  afforded  in  the 
way  of  innocent  amusement,  it  brings  to  the  mind  a 
pleasure  that  it  never  receives  from  uniform  thought- 
lessness. There  is  pleasure  in  mental  exercise  ;  and 
there  is  pleasure,  too,  in  refreshing  the  mind  with 
proper  diversions. 

The  teacher  should  study  the  abilities  of  the  mind, 
that  he  may  know  when  it  is  weary  with  effort,  and 
when  to  afford  it  amusement  by  relaxation.  There 
is  exquisite  happiness  in  unbending  the  mind  after 
severe  application  ;  and  tlie  teacher  who  understands 
human  nature  will  take  advantage  of  this  principle 
of  the  mind,  and  make  it  one  of  the  agreeable  exer- 
cises of  the  school.  He  will  connect  with  the  school, 
not  only  the  labour  and  the  toil,  but  also  the  amuse- 
ment and  the  rest. 

Many  teachers  mistake,  and  make  their  scholars 
uneasy  and  unhappy  by  requiring  them  to  remain 
too  long  in  one  position,  or  over  a  particular  lesson 
in  which  they  can  feel  no  interest.  Action,  and 
almost  continual  action,  seems  natural  to  the  young ; 
but  teachers  forget  this  principle,  and  compel  their 
scholars  to  do  violence  to  their  nature.  This  makes 
them  restive ;  and  if  not  allowed  open  action,  they 
will  gratify  this  propensity  by  sly,  deceitful  manoeu- 
vres. 

Proper  and  timely  diversion  would  prevent  this 
secret  mischief,  which,  if  detected,  will  be  followed 
by  punishment;  and  it  would  likewise  prevent  that 
listlessness  and  sleepiness  which  is  so  epidemic  in 
primary  schools.  The  teacher  should  see  that  the 
play  exercises  of  his  pupils  are  of  a  proper  character 
and  agreeable.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that 
the  larger  boys,  to  show  their  strength,  or  gratify 
their  love  of  tyranny,  intrude  upon  the  rights  and 
pleasures  of  the  smaller  ones,  and  spoil  their  sports, 
and  make  the  condition  of  the  weaker  very  uncom- 
fortable 


130  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

The  teacher  should  know  that  each  one  has  his 
rights  and  his  share  in  the  sport.  Many  who  are 
awkward  or  bashful,  or  perhaps  not  quite  so  sprightly 
as  others,  have  been  shunned  or  abused  till  their 
spirits  are  broken,  and  their  feelings  imbittered 
against  every  thing  connected  with  the  school. 
Such  the  teacher  should  take  by  the  hand,  and  show 
them  that  protection  and  tenderness  which  their 
misfortune  demands.  They  may  thus  be  saved, 
and  made,  perhaps,  the-  brightest  ornaments  of  so- 
ciety. The  teacher  should  always  be  solicitous  that 
the  hours  of  recreation  be  spent  in  such  a  manner 
that  every  one  shall  be  pleased. 

The  teacher  may  make  his  school  pleasant  by 
simplifying  the  studies,  and  by  presenting  his 
instructions  iji  an  attractive  form.  Scholars  soon 
acquire  a  disrelish  for  their  studies,  and  a  dislike  to 
the  duties  of  the  school,  if  their  lessons  appear  blind 
and  unintelligible.  If  their  studies  are  above  the 
comprehension,  they  will  be  a  task  only  to  weary 
and  puzzle  the  mind,  and  in  the  end  cause  the 
scholar  to  hate  knowledge,  and  all  the  means  by 
which  it  is  attained. 

That  this  is  too  often  the  case  is  the  reason  why 
scholars  "  go  tardily  to  school."  Also,  when  the 
teacher  renders  assistance,  his  manners  may  be  so 
unpleasant  that  the  scholar  will  hate  instruction, 
because  he  has  been  offended  by  the  instructer  ;  or, 
perhaps,  the  teacher  performs  his  duties  as  a  me- 
chanical task,  perfectly  indifferent  to  the  interest  of 
the  school. 

If  this  is  the  case,  the  scholar  will  of  course  sup- 
pose that  there  is  no  pleasure  to  be  found  in  the 
school-room.  But  if  the  studies  are  made  plain  and 
intelligible,  (which,  from  the  present  imperfection 
in  school-books,  must  be  the  work  of  the  teacher,) 
and  the  manners  of  the  teacher  affectionate  and 
winning,  the  school-room  and  its  duties  will  present 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  131 

to  the  pupils  the  highest  kind  of  enjoyment,  and 
cause  them  to  estimate  the  worth  of  their  school 
privileges  according  to  their  proper  value. 

Children  beg  to  stay  away  from  school,  and  re- 
joice when  they  have  passed  beyond  their  school- 
days, because  they  always  felt  miserable  when  under 
the  requirements  of  the  teacher.  The  school-room 
was  made  a  place  of  involuntary  confinement,  and 
its  duties  the  worst  kind  of  chains.  No  wonder  that 
children  incur  correction  twice  a  day  by  indolence 
or  by  playing  truant ;  but  the  teacher  may  change 
this  unhappy  state  of  things,  and  make  the  pupils  as 
eager  to  meet,  as  they  are  now  to  shun  him.  He 
may  make  the  children  plead  to  go  to  the  school, 
instead  of  running  truant  when  they  have  been  sent. 

The  teacher  should  obtain  the  love  and  confi- 
dence of  his  scholars.  Without  these,  his  labours 
will  be  very  disagreeable,  and  almost  useless.  If  he 
does  not  possess  these,  the  scholars  will  take  every 
advantage,  and  render  the  teacher's  labours  doubly 
arduous.  The  teacher  will  find  no  requital  for  his 
efforts  and  anxieties,  so  pleasing  and  acceptable  as 
the  love  and  confidence  of  his  scholars ;  and  they 
will  lighten  his"  burden  more  than  any  thing  else. 
The  scholars,  too,  are  pleased  when  they  can  carry 
their  troubles  and  their  difficulties  to  one  they  love, 
and  possesses  their  confidence. 

Scholars  want  some  one  to  answer  their  questions; 
and  it  is  always  gratifying  to  receive  light  on  those 
subjects  about  which  the  mind  is  in  doubt.  The 
teacher,  then,  who  has  the  confidence  of  his  pupils, 
can  make  them  attached  to  him  by  enlightening 
their  ignorance  and  gratifying  their  curiosity.  The 
teacher  should  convince  his  pupils  that  he  is  their 
friend — that  his  instructions  may  be  made  their 
greatest  blessing  ;  and  that  he  heartily  wishes  to 
improve  their  minds  and  purify  their  hearts. 

He  should  convince  them  that  the  cultivation  of 


132  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

the  mind,  and  the  practice  of  virtue,  are  the  only 
things  that  can  make  them  ornaments  and  blessings 
to  society  ;  and  he  should  show  them  that  their 
school  privileges  are  for  this  purpose.  If  he  is  suc- 
cessful in  this,  he  will  make  them  love  the  school 
and  its  teacher.  It  should  be  the  constant  aim  and 
object  of  the  instructer  to  make  learning  pleasing 
and  useful,  and  his  school  attractive  and  agreeable. 
He  should  love  his  profession,  and  strive  to  make 
every  one  happy  that  may  be  committed  to  his  care. 


SECTION  XII. 

THE    BEST    METHOD    OP    TEACHING    SPELLING    AND 
READING. 

Children  may  be  taught  the  names  of  the  letters 
soon  after  they  are  able  to  pronounce  them.  The 
names  of  these  signs  or  characters  may  be  learned 
by  the  infant  mind  as  soon  as  it  learns  the  names 
of  its  parents,  its  pictures,  its  toys,  or  the  name  of 
the  cat  or  the  dog.  The  child  commences  acting 
and  learning  from  the  first  moment  of  its  existence, 
and  soon  acquires  a  knowledge  of  the  names  and 
some  of  the  qualities  of  the  objects  with  which  it 
comes  in  contact. 

If  infants  could  have  the  letters  in  large  size  on 
strips  or  blocks  of  pasteboard,  or  on  some  small 
articles  which  they  might  be  permitted  to  handle, 
and  which  might  be  presented  in  connexion  with 
pictures  of  animals,  they  would  soon  learn  and  pro- 
nounce the  names  of  the  letters,  in  the  same  way 
that  they  learn  and  pronounce  the  names  of  any  of 
the  signs  or  objects  they  first  meet  with.     Thus,  by 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  133 

bringing  the  letters  under  the  notice  of  infants  in 
the  form  of  amusement  or  in  close  connexion  with 
their  playthings,  they  are  early  and  unconsciously 
learned,  without  loss  of  time  on  the  part  of  the 
parent  or  child. 

The  letters  are  learned,  too,  not  as  an  unpleasant 
task,  (which  is  always  the  case  both  with  teacher 
and  child  if  not  learned  when  young,)  but  as  a  de- 
sirable exercise.  Infants,  it  is  well  known,  are  fond 
of  exercising  their  little  organs  of  speech,  and  parents 
are  pleased  with  these  promising  efforts,  and  are 
always  heard  pronouncing  names  to  be  repeated  by 
the  delighted  little  prattler;  and  quite  young  children 
manifest  pleasure  in  noticing  the  objects  which  may 
be  selected  for  their  attention. 

Now,  the  names  which  the  parent  pronounces  to 
teach  the  child  to  articulate,  may  be  the  names  of 
the  letters  of  tlie  alphabet ;  and  among  the  objects 
which  are  selected  to  busy  and  amuse  the  child,  may 
be  the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  If  this  were  so,  pa- 
rents would  find  that  what  is  necessary  to  know  was 
learned,  as  it  were,  insensibly  and  with  delight,  and 
taught  without  labour. 

If  this  is  not  done  by  the  negligent  or  absent 
parent,  and  the  child  is  sent  to  school  ignorant  of  its 
alphabet,  the  teacher  may  perform  the  task  in  a  few 
days,  and  in  a  pleasant  manner,  though  in  a  very 
different  one  from  that  which  is  generally  adopted 
in  our  common  schools.  The  usual  method  of  teacli- 
ing  children  their  letters,  is  to  make  them  stand  by 
the  side  of  the  master,  and  say  A-eh,  B-eh,  C-eh, 
D-eh,  E-eh,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  row,  at  most 
but  three  or  four  times  a  day.  If  there  are  three  or 
four  children  by  the  side  of  the  master,  for  the  pur- 
pose oi  saying  down  their  letters,  but  one  is  required 
to  look  on  at  the  same  time.  In  this  way,  children 
spend  from  three  to  four  months  in  learning  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet. 

M 


134  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

One  mode  of  teaching  children  their  letters,  which 
has  always  been  found  pleasant  and  successful,  is, 
holding  up  in  the  sight  of  all  the  children  two  or 
three  letters  of  considerable  size,  and  whose  union 
spells  the  name  of  some  familiar  object.  For  ex- 
ample, let  the  letters  0  X,  standing  under  the  picture 
of  an  ox,  be  shown  to  the  children.  The  names  of 
the  letters  are  pronounced  by  the  teacher,  and  by 
the  children  in  concert  after  him.  When  the  names 
of  these  two  signs  are  known  to  the  children,  the 
teacher  may  tell  them  a  story  about  the  ox. 

By  being  interested  with  the  idea  which  the 
letters  are  connected  with,  it  will  be  almost  certain 
that  the  children  remember  their  names.  The  two 
letters  may  then  be  given  to  each  of  the  children, 
who  return  to  their  seats,  pleased  with  the  signs 
which  have  been  connected  with  such  a  pleasing 
idea  or  story.  After  a  suitable  interval  the  teacher 
may  examine  them,  and  if  the  names  of  the  letters 
are  remembered,  they  may  be  taken  away,  with  a 
promise  of  showing  them  others,  in  connexion  with 
a  picture  and  a  story,  in  a  short  time. 

The  teacher  again  asks  the  attention  of  the  chil- 
dren, and  shows  them  the  three  letters  b,  o,  y  ;  one 
of  them  the  same  they  had  in  the  first  lesson,  that 
he  may  try  tlie  memory.  The  picture  of  a  boy  is 
seen  over  the  letters  ;  and  after  the  children  have 
learned  the  names  of  the  two  signs  b,  y,  the  teacher 
relates  a  story  of  a  little  boy  he  once  knew  or  heard 
of.  The  children  return  to  their  seats  with  the  two 
letters  b,  and  y. 

This  method  of  teaching  the  alphabet  demands 
but  a  few  moments  of  time  from  the  teacher,  and 
makes  the  employment  delightful  to  himself,  for  he 
sees  the  young  minds  before  him  taking  their  first 
steps  in  knowledge,  and  at  the  same  time  their  little 
features  lighted  up  with  joy  in  their  new  enterprise. 
In  one  week's  time  he  may  make  every  child  fa- 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  135 

miliar  with  all  its  letters.  How  much  time,  labour, 
impatience,  and  compulsion  on  the  part  of  the  teach- 
er, and  dislike,  fretting,  and  hatred  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil  might  be  saved,  if  instructers  would  permit 
children  to  obtain  knowledge  in  school  in  the  same 
manner  that  Nature  teaches  them  out  oi\i\ 

After  the  child  is  able  to  give  the  name  without 
hesitation  to  each  letter  in  the  alphabet,  it  shoidd 
begin  to  learn  the  powers  of  letters,  when  united  in 
syllables.  Here  teachers  and  scholars  find  difficulty; 
and  here  many  errors  and  bad  habits,  which  go  with 
the  child  in  all  its  after-studies  and  performances, 
take  their  origin.  The  powers  of  letters  change 
with  their  connexion  and  position.  From  this  cir- 
cumstance many  of  the  letters  have  several  sounds, 
and  some  of  them  more  than  one  hundred  different, 
distinct  sounds  or  powers. 

The  child  cannot  perceive  this  great  variety,  nor 
give  to  the  letters  of  the  syllable  those  particular 
sounds,  which  their  connexion  or  position,  or  the 
arbitrary  standard  of  pronunciation,  may  require. 
This  can  be  done  only  after  long  study — after  much 
attention  to  the  etymology  of  the  language  ;  yet  to 
some  degree  the  child  is  required  to  do  this  when 
it  knows  merely  the  names  of  the  letters. 

The  difficulty  is  in  distinguishing  and  placing 
these  different  sounds.  The  child  sees  that  the  let- 
ters, by  being  brought  together  in  syllables,  have 
changed  their  names ;  for  to  the  child  the  name  of 
the  letter  is  its  sound.  To  obviate  this  difficulty, 
and  to  take  away  this  uncertainty  in  the  mind  of  the 
child  respecting  the  correct  sound  of  the  letter  it 
may  be  pronouncing,  teachers  should  select  a  number 
of  dissyllables,  in  each  of  which  the  letters  have  the 
same  sound. 

When  the  child  has  learned  to  pronounce  these, 
it  has  acquired  one  of  the  powers  of  these  letters. 
After  this,  syllables  of  three  and  four  letters  may  be 


13G  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

spelled  and  pronounced  by  the  child.  The.  letters 
of  these  syllables  should  have  the  same  powers  they 
formerly  had  when  standing  in  dissyllables.  The 
pupil  will  find  these  words  easy  and  uniform.  After 
a  proper  time  is  spent  on  these  simple  lessons,  let 
syllables  be  given  to  the  child,  where  some  of  the 
letters  have  a  different  power. 

When  the  pupil  has  learned  some  of  the  most 
simple  and  common  powers  of  the  letters,  when 
united  into  syllables,  let  him  unite  these  syllables 
and  form  words.  In  forming  words,  manj^  teachers 
permit  a  serious  and  lasting  error.  Children  are 
allowed  to  call  the  names  of  the  letter's,  without 
dividing  the  word  into  syllables,  and  pronouncing 
each  syllal^le  as  it  proceeds.  The  child  is  not  better 
qualified  to  pronounce  the  word  after  it  has  named 
the  letters,  without  dividing  them  into  syllables  and 
pronouncing  them,  than  it  was  when  uttering  the 
first  letter  of  the  word. 

The  habit  of  naming  the  letters  without  pronounc- 
ing the  syllables  and  uiiiting  them  as  the  j)iipil 
proceeds  through  the  ivord,  disqualifies  the  pupils 
from  making  any  use  of  their  knov.dedge  of  spelling, 
or  of  helping  themselves  at  any  time  in  ascertaining 
the  correct  pronunciation  of  a  strange  or  large  word. 
If  children  were  accustomed  to  exercise  their  inge- 
nuity in  dividing  the  word  into  syllables,  and  to 
give  the  proper  pronunciation  to  these  syllables, 
they  would  seldom  find  any  difficulty  with  strange 
or  long  words ;  but  if  they  are  permitted  to  pass 
through  the  word,  and  only  name  its  letters,  they 
will  make  little  or  no  real  progress,  but  confirm  the 
worst  of  all  habits. 

How  seldom  do  we  find  a  teacher  who  does  not 
permit  this  evil !  I  do  not  know  when  I  have 
heard  a  child  read  who  has  in  this  thing  been  cor- 
rectly taught.  By  allowing  this  error,  the  teacher 
greatly  increases  his  own  labour ;  for  the  pupil  must 


PISTRICT    SCHOOL.  137 

be  constantly  assisted — he  cannot  help  himself,  but 
is  as  dependent  on  others  for  the  sound  of  the  word 
as  if  he  had  never  learned  the  letters. 

There  is  another  error  in  our  schools  which  is 
the  cause  of  so  much  bad  spelling  in  the  business 
of  after-life.  The  error  is  in  learning  and  correct- 
ing with  one  sense  what  in  nature  and  practice  be- 
longs to  another  sense.  Children  in  school  correct 
their  spelling  by  the  sense  of  hearing.  The  teacher 
pronounces  the  word,  and  from  the  sound  the  pupils 
are  required  to  spell  it.  After  the  ear  has  been 
trained  for  a  number  of  years  in  this  way,  the  pupil 
will  spell  nearl)'-  ev€ry  word  which  his  teacher  gives 
him ;  yet  this  very  same  pupil,  when  at  home, 
writing  a  letter  to  some  friend,  will  spell  almost 
every  word  wrong. 

Now,  what  is  the  reason  of  this  accuracy  in  one 
place  and  incorrectness  in  the  other.  It  is  this, 
when  at  home  the  words  appear,  not  through  the 
sense  of  hearing,  (the  sense  which  has  been  educated, 
and  always  applied  to  as  the  corrective,)  but  through 
the  sense  of  seeing.  The  pupil  has  not  been  accus- 
tomed to  judge  whether  words  are  spelled  correctly 
or  not  by  their  appearance  on  paper ;  and  the  false 
spelling,  not  coming  under  the  trial  of  the  ear, 
escapes  the  unskilful  observance  of  the  eye. 

The  origin  of  the  evil  being  discovered,  it  remains 
that  we  apply  a  remedy.  Let  the  pupils,  while 
receiving  the  words  from  the  teacher,  write  them  out 
on  slates.  After  a  number  of  words  are  given  and 
written  out,  let  the  pupils  interchange  slates,  and 
examine  and  correct  each  other's  spelling.  By  this 
method  the  sense  of  seeing  is  educated  and  made  a 
judge.  The  eye  has  the  words  before  it — sees  their 
appearance  when  incorrectly  spelled  and  their  just 
and  natural  appearance  when  rightly  spelled.  This 
same  office  the  eye  would  be  ready  and  able  to  per- 
M  2 


138  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

form  when  at  home  writing  a  letter  to  a  friend,  and 
bad  spelling  would  be  detected. 

The  teacher  should  confine  his  pupils  but  a  short 
time  to  words  marshalled  into  ranks,  as  they  stand 
in  the  columns  of  the  spelling-book,  without  con- 
veying one  idea,  or  any  meaning  whatever.  There 
is  too  much  mere  verbiage  in  our  district  schools/* 
Children  are  confined  to  these  unmeaning,  uncon- 
nected words  for  two  or  three  years.  Teachers 
should  see  the  folly  and  the  tyranny  of  this;  they 
have  seen  the  difficulty ;  for  it  is  with  great  labour 
that  they  keep  the  minds  of  the  pupils  on  their 
lessons. 

As  soon  as  children  have  learned  some  of  the 
powers  of  letters,  and  have  some  facility  and  cor- 
rectness in  joining  syllables  into  words,  they  should 
be  permitted  to  read  easy  sentences.  These  sen- 
tences should  be  composed  of  words  of  one  or  two 
syllables,  and  contain  a  familiar  and  pleasing  idea. 
Now,  for  the  first  time,  the  child   begins  to  feel 

*  Having  worse  than  lost  five  or  six  years  in  the  nursery, 
— having  passed  the  practicable  season  of  moral  traininjo^,  vj^ith 
all  our  natural  faults  about  us,  tempers  unregulated,  pride  and 
vanity  decidedly  pampered,  and  selfishness  aggravated,  we 
were  sent  to  school  to  learn  to  read.  That  there  is  some 
improvement  in  schools,  it  would  be  great  injustice  not  to  ac- 
knowledge ;  but  few  adults  can  say  that  more  than  mere  read- 
ing was  in  their  first  school  instruction  vouchsafed  to  them. 
Even  yet  no  attempt  is  made  to  direct  aright  the  natural  appe- 
tite of  the  young  to  know.  Reading  is  a  useful  instrument 
of  knowledge,  but  it  is  gross  ignorance  to  call  it  knowledge 
itself.  Even  at  an  age  earlier  than  that  of  our  "  English 
school,"  the  faculties  ardently  crave  their  natural  food — know- 
ledge. The  infant  purveys,  in  some  degree,  for  itself,  to  the 
great  reproach  of  its  unenlightened  instructers.  At  school, 
these  knowledge-craving  faculties  have  little  or  nothing  done 
for  them  ;  on  the  contrary,  their  natural  neglect  of  the  school- 
book,  the  result  of  their  preference  of  something  else  much 
more  instructive  as  well  as  delightful,  was  punished  as  idle- 
ness and  frivolity ;  and  we  left  our  first  school  as  we  went  to 
it,  with  scarcely  any  addition  to  our  knowledge. — Simpson, 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  139 

pleased  with  its  studies :  all  before  this  has  been 
unintelligible  signs  and  combinations  of  signs.  But 
now  it  finds  these  signs  conductors  of  thought — 
of  something  that  instructs  and  pleases.  The  child 
is  now  gratified  with  its  book ;  for  the  book  has  an 
interest  within  itself  sufficient  to  draw  and  fix  the 
attention. 

At  present  there  are  a  few  books  which  are  sim- 
ple without  being  silly,  and  well  adapted  to  children. 
These  should  be  put  into  their  hands.  After  the 
pupils  are  familiar  with  the  language  and  contents 
of  these  books,  others  containing  sentences  more 
complicated,  and  words  composed  of  a  greater  num- 
ber of  syllables,  should  be  given  to  them. 

This  is  far  from  being  the  case  in  our  common 
schools.  The  universal  practice  in  these  neglected 
places  of  learning  is  in  the  first  place  to  keep  the 
child  fastened  to  unmeaning  words  for  two  or  three 
years,  and  then  to  put  books  into  his  hands  which 
a  graduate  of  one  of  our  colleges  can  scarcely  under- 
stand,and  perhaps,  is  not  sufficiently  learned  toappre- 
ciate.  When  the  child  can  pronounce  words  of  two 
syllables  without  spelling  them,  it  is  put  into  the 
''  English  Reader."  A  fit  book  for  a  literary  man, 
but  entirely  unfit  for  children. 

If  the  pupils  at  this  stage  of  learning  are  not  so 
fortunate  as  to  be  exalted  into  this  "  class  of  honour," 
they  are  privileged  by  reading  in  the  back  part  of 
the  spelling-book,  or  in  the  Columbian  Orator; 
reading  equally  as  unintelligible  as  that  in  the  Eng- 
lish Reader.  Thus  the  child,  from  the  time  it  com- 
mences going  to  school  till  its  parents  require  its 
constant  labour  at  home,  spells  and  reads,  writes 
and  rehearses  words,  and  sentences  of  words,  and 
whole  volumes  of  words,  without  even  thinking  of 
obtaining  one  clear,  distinct,  useful  idea  from  them. 

The  child  never  thinks  of  being  questioned  about 
that  which  it  has  just  read.     If  a  question  of  this 


140  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

nature  should  be  put,  the  reader  would  be  as  in- 
capable of  answering  as  he  would  be  after  reading 
hieroglyphics.  The  pupil  at  school  does  not  sup- 
pose that  books  are*  read  because  they  have  a  mean- 
ing either  to  amuse  or  to  instruct,  but  because  they 
have  words  to  be  pronounced  and  sentences  to  be 
cadenced  or  emphasized.  His  whole  aim  conse- 
quently is,  not  to  find  out  the  meaning  of  what  he 
reads,  but  to  finish  his  verse  without  "  missing  a 
word.'' 

Here  we  discover  the  cause  of  so  many  blunder- 
ing, unnatural,  unaffecting  readers.  Imagine  the 
effect  of  readinij;  what  we  did  not  understand  for 
even  one  week  upon  ourselves.  It  would  unfit  us 
for  any  imprcssiveness,  either  in  tone  or  emphasis. 
But  the  youth  in  our  schools  are  brought  up,  from 
infancy  till  the  time  they  "  finish  their  education," 
to  read  what  they  are  not  required,  or  even  expected, 
to  comprehend. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  the  tone  of  voice  is  so  un- 
suitable to  the  sentiment,  the  emphasis  so  improperly 
placed,  and  the  whole  manner  so  artificial  and  un- 
natural. We  do  think  that  nearly  all  of  the  bad 
habits  which  we  are  obliged  to  witness  and  excuse, 
both  in  private  and  public  readers,  proceed  from  this 
mechanical,  indolent  practice  of  reading  during  our 
childhood  and  youth  what  we  do  not  understand.^ 

If  this  be  so,  and  we  think  no  one  who  will  go 
into  our  schools  and  question  the  scholars  concern- 

*  Hitherto  education  has  been  conducted  too  much  on  the 
principle  of  looking  at  the  world  only  out  of  the  window  of 
the  school  and  the  college,  and  teaching  the  names  of  the 
beings  and  things  therein  contained,  in  a  variety  of  languages, 
to  the  neglect  of  the  study  of  the  beings  and  things  themselves  ; 
whereas  man,  as  a  creature  destined  for  action,  fitted  to  con- 
trol nature  to  some  extent,  and,  beyond  this,  left  to  accommo- 
date his  conduct  to  its  course,  requires  positive  knowledge  of 
creation,  its  elements  and  laws,  and  has  little  use  for  words 
which  go  beyond  the  stock  of  his  ideas. — Combe's  Lectures. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  141 

ing  that  which  they  have  just  read  will  doubt  it,  we 
have  found  the  cause  of  that  defective  reading  which 
so  often  offends  the  hearers  and  disgraces  the  read- 
ers. We  say,  then,  never  let  children  or  youth  read 
what  t"hey  do  not  comprehend,  or  that  in  which  they 
feel  no  interest.  Let  books  be  put  into  their  hands 
which  are  level  with  their  capacities. 

Such  as  contain  information  which  may  be  gratify- 
ing for  them  to  receive;  books  which  treat  of  sub- 
jects with  which  it  will  be  useful  for  them  to  become 
acquainted  ;  and  such  that  have  motives  sufficient 
within  themselves  to  make  the  young  eager  to 
peruse  them.  Let  an  instructive  story  be  told  in  a 
simple,  chaste,  forcible  style ;  or  some  of  Nature's 
handiworks  be  described  in  a  plain,  natural,  and 
speaking  language  ;  or  the  application  of  some  of 
the  sciences  to  the  practical  purposes  of  life.  Illus- 
trated in  a  simple,  clear,  intelligent  manner  ;  or  the 
biography  of  some  exemplary  youth  ;  or  any  proper 
subject  whatever,  which  children  and  youth  can 
sympathize  with  and  feel  a  lively  interest  in. 

If  our-school-books  were  of  this  nature,  we  should 
hear  but  very  little  bad  reading.  Who  of  us  ever 
thinks  of  correcting  a  child  in  its  pauses,  emphasis, 
or  tones  of  voice,  when  we  hear  it  in  animated  con- 
versation w^ith  one  of  its  playmates  ?  Let  the  child 
read  what  it  can  understand  and  feel  an  interest 
in,  and  it  will  read  as  correctly  as  it  converses. 

We  say  then,  again,  (for  w^e  do  think  this  great 
evil  of  compelling  children  to  pronounce  words  for 
years,  to  which  they  attach  no  kind  of  meaning 
whatever,  too  much  neglected,)  never  let  children 
read  what  they  do  not  understand.  If  there  are 
words  in  the  lesson  of  which  they  do  not  know  the 
meaning,  let  the  dictionary,  or  the  attached  glossary, 
or  the  teacher  define  them.  Never  let  the  young 
reader  pronounce  a  word  without  perceiving  the 
meaning  the  author  attached  to  it. 


142  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

The  teacher  should  frequently  question  his  read- 
ing chiss  on  what  has  just  been  read,  that  he  may- 
know  how  far  they  have  comprehended  their  author, 
and  ascertain  what  meaning  they  connect  with  the 
individual  words.  If  we  should  ask  adults,  and 
even  liberally  educated  men,  to  define  some  words 
of  the  most  common  use,  they  would  hesitate,  and 
probably  be  unable  to  give  any  thing  like  a  correct 
definition.  In  this,  the  systems  of  instruction  in  all 
of  our  literary  institutions  are  miserably  defective. 

Educated  men  are  in  the  constant  habit  of  using 
words  to  which  they  attach  a  connective  meaning 
indeed  obtained  from  usage,  but  to  which  they  would 
be  unable  to  give  a  concise,  correct  definition.  This 
evil  is  universal  in  our  primary  schools,  and  is  seen 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  our  higher  institu- 
tions up  to  the  professional  college.  It  is  no  wonder 
that  men  make  such  an  improper  choice  of  words, 
that  they  use  so  many  which  are  equivocal,  and 
that  they  are  so  frequently  misunderstood.  Their 
ignorance  of  the  correct  meaning  of  words  does  not 
permit  them  to  select  such  as  express  what  they 
intend  to  communicate.* 

*  The  term  "educated  class,"  as  applied  to  the  portion  of 
our  countrymen  who  are  above  manual  labour,  will  scarcely 
be  taken  by  any  one  to  mean  that  they  enjoy  the  means  of 
education  perfect,  or  nearly  perfect.  The  term  is  relative,  and 
certainly  when  compared  with  the  manual-labour  class,  who 
have  no  education  at  all  worthy  the  name,  we  are  an  educated 
class.  But  no  error  is  more  profound,  or  more  prevalent,  than 
the  persuasion  that  we  are  an  educated  class  in  the  best  sense 
of  the  term.  Our  complacent  conclusions  on  the  subject  are, 
however,  exceedinorly  natural.  Look,  it  is  said,  at  our  libra- 
ries, our  encyclopedias,  teeming,  as  they  do,  with  knowledge 
in  every  branch  of  science  and  literature.  See  our  chemical, 
mathematical,  mechanical  powers,  with  all  their  realized  re- 
sults, which  seem  to  mould  material  nature  to  our  will  and 
render  life  proudly  luxurious.  Then  turn  to  our  classical 
literature,  our  belles  lettres,  our  poetry,  our  eloquence,  our 
polished  intercourse,  our  refined  society  ;  consider  our  fine  arts 
and  elegancies ;  and,  above  all,  think  of  our  legislation,  our 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  143 

There  is  in  our  district  schools  another  bad  prac- 
tice which  gives  almost  every  scholar  very  unnatural 
and  disagreeable  habits.  I  refer  to  that  high,  uni- 
form pitch  of  voice  which  the  young  reader  is  sure 
to  strike  into.  I  do  not  remember  that  I  ever 
heard  a  child  read  in  a  natural,  conversational  tone 
of  voice.  This  is  a  great  defect ;  teachers  should  be 
careful  to  have  their  pupils  read  in  natural  tones, 
and  to  have  them  varied  according  to  the  sentiment. 
Teachers  seldom  pay  attention  to  articulation  ,  and 
the  consequence  is,  that  but  very  few  articulate 
well.  It  is  very  rarely  that  wc  hear  a  reader  or 
speaker  give  each  letter  of  the  word  its  full  sound. 
Frequentl)^  one-half  of  the  w^ord  is  dropped,  or 
clipped,  or  inaudibly  uttered.  This  defect  in  articu- 
lation keeps  the  mind  constantly  directed  to  the 
words,  that  it  may  make  out  what  they  are,  and  the 
attention  is  diverted  from  the  subject.  This  prac- 
tice is  also  very  unpleasant  to  the  ear.  Teachers 
should  make  their  pupils  give  each  letter  and  sylla- 
ble its  distinct,  full  sound.  When  this  is  done, 
there  is  a  force  and  meaning  in  the  word  which  is 
never  given  when  half  uttered. 

political  economy,  our  institutions  of  benevolence  and  justice, 
and  the  gigantic  combinations  of  our  entire  national  system. 
There  is  much  in  these  high-sounding  claims  that  deceive  us. 
We  are  prone  to  borrow  from  the  large  fund  of  credit  we  pos- 
sess in  the  exact  and  physical  sciences,  to  place  the  loan  to 
the  account  of  universal  intellectual  and  moral  attainment,  and 
to  conclude  that  a  pitch  of  improvement,  which  enables  us  to 
travel  thirty  miles  an  hour,  must  comprise  in  it  every  thing 
else  of  knowledge  and  power.  But,  alas  !  when  we  look  be- 
yond the  range  of  physical  tangibilities,  and,  it  may  be,  ele- 
gant literature,  into  the  region  of  mental  and  moral  relations, 
in  short  the  science  of  man,  upon  which  depend  the  wisdom 
of  our  legislation,  and  the  soundness  of  our  institutions  and 
customs,  what  a  scene  of  uncertainty  do  we  see!  Fixed  prin- 
ciples in  social  affairs  have  not  yet  been  attained.  Scarcely 
shall  we  meet  two  individuals  who  are  guided  by  the  same 
code.  Hence  controversy  is  the  business  of  the  moral,  and 
assuredly,  we  may  add,  of  the  religious  world." — Simpson, 


144  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

If  I  was  asked  what  rules  I  would  give  to  the 
children  of  our  common  schools  that  they  might 
learn  to  read  with  ease,  correctness,  and  impressive- 
ness,  I  would  say,  only  three,  and  these  are  very 
simple  ones.  I  would  not  explain  the  philosophy 
of  the  human  voice;  nor  speak  of  emphasis,  inflexion, 
or  cadence;  neither  of  pauses,  accents,  or  intonations. 
But  I  would  say,  and  I  think  it  is  all  that  is  neces- 
sary to  be  said,  comprehend  what  you  read, — read 
in  a  natural^  conversational  tone  of  voice,  and 
read  often.  If  teachers  will  see  that  their  pupils 
practise  these  three  plain  rules,  they  will  have  the 
pleasure  of  hearing  good  readers. 


SECTION  XIII. 

THE    BEST    METHOD    OF    TEACHING    WRITING. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  our  district  schools  fur- 
nish so  small  a  number  of  good  writers.  But  a  very 
few  who  are  now  practising  this  art  in  our  district 
schools  will  be  able  to  execute  a  free,  bold,  and 
legible  hand.  The  greater  part,  including  almost 
the  whole,  will  number  their  school-days  and  still 
write  with  a  stiff,  measured,  ragged,  scrawling, 
blotting  hand  ;  scarcely  legible  to  the  writers  them- 
selves, and  almost  impossible  for  any  one  else  to 
make  out  what  is  intended.  The  youth  are  con- 
scious of  their  deficiencies  with  the  pen,  and  we 
seldom  find  them  willing  to  use  it. 

The  little,  imperfect  as  it  is,  that  they  have  learn- 
ed, is  from  the  want  of  practice  soon  forgotten ;  and 
many,  very  many  of  the  labouring  classes,  by  the 
time  they  have  numbered  thirty  or  thirty-five  years, 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  145 

are  unable  to  write  in  any  manner  whatever.  Others 
may  write  with  some  ease  and  finish  while  in  school, 
and  the  copy  before  them,  but  as  soon  as  the  rule 
and  plummet,  the  school-desk  and  the  round  copy- 
plate  is  taken  away,  they  have  lost  the  art,  and  now 
find  that  they  are  unable  to  write  a  straight  line  or 
a  legible  one. 

It  is  to  be  lamented  that  so  much  time  is  wasted 
in  learning  what  they  never  do  learn,  or  what,  at 
best,  they  feel  ashamed  or  unable  to  make  any  use 
of;  or,  with  others,  what  is  so  soon  forgotten.  There 
is,  generally  speaking,  a  suflicient  quantity  of  time 
appropriated  to  writing,  suflicient  care  (though  fruit- 
less) taken  to  provide  materials,  (and  a  great  quantity 
of  them  are  used,)  to  make  all  of  the  scholars  good 
writers.  There  is  some  fault  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  or  parent,  or  among  the  pupils  themselves ; 
and  we  will  (from  personal  observation)  describe 
the  process  of  learning  to  write  in  our  district 
schools.  The  causes  of  so  much  imperfection  may 
thus  be  developed. 

The  child  is  (in  most  cases,  for  it  is  true  that  there 
are  some  exceptions  to  what  I  am  about  to  say,  I 
wish  there  were  more)  provided  with  a  single  sheet 
of  foolscap  paper,  doubled  into  four  leaves,  a  quill, 
and  an  inkstand,  which  probably  has  nothing  in  it 
but  thick,  muddy  settlings,  or  dry,  hard  cotton,  and 
thus  duly  equipped,  sent  to  school.  The  thin  small 
quantity  of  paper  is  laid  upon  the  hard  desk,  made 
full  of  holes,  ridges,  and  furrows  by  the  former  oc- 
cupant's penknife. 

The  writing  desk  in  many  instances  so  high  that 
the  chin  of  the  writer  cannot,  without  a  temporary 
elongation  of  body,  be  projected  over  the  upper  sur- 
face ;  this  being  done,  however,  and  the  feet  left 
swinging  six  or  eight  inches  from  the  floor,  and  half 
of  the  weight  of  the  body  hanging  by  the  chin,  the 
child  with  a  horizontal  view  iCxamines  its  copy  of 
N 


14G  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

Straight  marks.  It  then  is  directed  to  take  the  pen, 
which  is  immediately  spoiled  by  being  thrust  into 
the  dry  or  muddy  inkstand,  and  begin  to  write. 

The  pen  is  so  held,  that  the  feathered  end,  instead 
of  being  pointed  towards  the  shoulder,  is  pointed  in 
the  opposite  direction,  directly  in  front:  the  fingers 
doubled  in  and  squeezing  the  pen  like  a  vice,  the 
thumb  thrown  out  straight  and  stiff,  the  forefinger 
enclosing  the  pen  near  the  second  joint,  and  the 
inked  end  of  the  pen  passing  over  the  first  joint  of 
the  second  finger  in  a  perpendicular  line  to  that 
made  by  the  finger.  In  this  tiresome,  uneasy,  un- 
steady attitude  of  body,  and  the  hand  holding  the 
pen  with  a  twisted,  cramping  gripe,  the  child  com- 
pletes its  first  lesson  in  the  art  of  writing. 

After  such  a  beginning,  the  more  the  child  writes 
the  more  confirmed  will  it  become  in  its  bad  habits. 
It  cannot  improve  ;  it  is  only  forming  habits  which 
must  be  wholly  discarded,  if  the  child  ever  learns 
any  thing.  But  in  this  wretched  manner  the  pupil 
is  permitted  to  use  the  pen  day  after  day,  for  two, 
or  four,  or  six  years. 

The  teacher  shows  the  scholar,  perhaps,  how  to 
hold  the  pen,  by  placing  it  in  his  own  hand  cor- 
rectly, but  does  not  see  that  the  pupil  takes  and 
keejis  the  pen  in  the  same  position  when  writing. 
If  the  pen  should  be  held  correctly  for  a  moment, 
while  the  teacher  is  observing,  the  old  habit  will 
immediately  change  the  position  when  the  teacher 
has  turned  his  back.  Such  practice  and  such  in- 
struction afibrd  an  explanation  of  so  much  waste 
of  time  and  materials,  of  such  slow  improvement, 
and  of  so  much  bad  penmanship. 

Another  pupil,  who  commences  writing  at  a  more 
advanced  age,  finds  the  desk  too  low,  and  from  being 
obliged  to  bend  somewhat,  soon  lies  down  upon  tlie 
paper.  I  have  seldom  entered  a  district  school 
during  the  writing  hour,  without  finding  the  scho- 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  147 

ars  who  were  using  the  pen,  resting  their  heads 
and  shoulders  on  the  desk,  looking  horizontally  at 
their  work,  and  the  writing-hook  thrown  half  round, 
making  its  lines  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  eye. 
In  this  sleepy,  hidden  position,  it  is  impossible 
to  examine  and  criticise  what  we  are  doing;  and 
yet,  teachers  from  carelessness,  or  from  having 
their  attention  directed  to  some  other  part  of  the 
school  during  the  writing  season,  almost  universally 
allow  it. 

Teachers  seldom  prepare  their  pens  previous  to 
their  being  called  for,  and  they  are  consequently 
employed  in  mending  them  while  they  should  be 
directing  the  scholars  who  are  writing.  They  do 
not  always  specify  and  describe  the  frequently  oc- 
curring faults  in  such  a  manner  as  to  assist  the  child 
in  avoiding  them,  and  in  improving  the  next  time 
where  he  has  previously  failed.  The  criticisms  are 
too  general,  too  indefinite  to  profit  the  pupil,  and  he 
continues  after  this  useless  instruction  to  write  in 
the  same  careless  way  that  he  did  before. 

Teachers  likewise  do  not  preserve  the  writing- 
books  which  have  been  filled,  and  hence  they  are 
not  able  to  compare  the  one  just  finished  with  others 
written  a  few  months  before.  If  they  should  do 
this,  the  pupil  might  often  be  convinced  of  that 
which  the  teacher  is  unable  to  make  him  believe, — 
viz.  that  he  makes  no  improvement.  Teachers 
frequently  set  copies  that  are  very  improper  for  the 
particular  attainments  or  habits  of  the  pupil :  not 
discriminating  or  knowing  what  is  required. 

To  write  with  ease  and  facility  that  which  may 
be  easily  read,  is  not  only  a  desirable  accomplish- 
ment, but  in  this  land  of  free  and  distant  interchange 
of  thought,  absolutely  necessary.  And  as  an  irre- 
gular blind  hand  is  not  only  a  disgrace  to  the  writer, 
but  a  consumption  of  much  valuable  time  to  the 
reader,  I  shall  give  some  directions  which  may  pos- 


148  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

sibly  improve  the  present  system  of  teacliing  pen- 
manship. 

The  child  should  commence  writing  at  an  early 
age,  as  soon  as  it  has  mastered  its  easy  spelling  les- 
sons. Young  children  are  fond  of  making  marks, 
and  with  proper  attention  will  learn  to  form  letters 
as  ready,  if  not  readier,  than  they  will  when  older. 
At  this  age,  too,  the  teacher  finds  a  difficulty  in  con- 
fining their  restless  minds  to  the  book  but  for  a 
short  time,  and  writing  comes  in  as  a  variety,  and 
an  amusement  to  them. 

If  children  commence  writing  when  young,  they 
always  become  fond  of  it ;  but  those  who  are  not 
permitted  to  begin  till  they  are  ten  or  twelve  years 
of  age,  very  frequently  show  a  dislike  to  the  pen, 
and  become  disgusted  with  the  shapeless,  uncouth 
letters  their  want  of  practice  compels  them  to  make. 
Their  pride  looks  with  scorn  upon  their  inferior 
performance,  and  they  throw  aside  the  quill  with 
contempt,  probably  never  to  make  another  attempt. 
I  would  say,  by  all  means,  let  children  commence 
writing  while  quite  young. 

In  their  first  exercises  they  should  use  the  slate 
and  pencil.  I  recommend  this  after  having  observed 
the  benefit  of  using  the  slate  and  pencil  in  more  than 
one  hundred  different  schools.  In  the  public  schools 
of  the  city  of  New  York,  I  have  witnessed  as  elegant 
specimens  of  penmanship  as  I  ever  met  with  in  any 
select  school,  or  even  writing  school ;  and  in  all  of 
these  public  schools  the  pupils  are  required  to  use 
the  slate  and  pencil  for  a  considerable  time. 

On  the  slates,  the  pupils  should  form  letters  and 
unite  them  into  words.  The  letters  should  be  large, 
and  much  care  taken  to  give  them  their  proper  pro- 
portion. The  teacher  should  also  see  that  the  pencil 
(which  must  be  four  or  five  inches  long)  is  held  in 
the  same  position  in  which  the  scholars  will  after- 
ward be  required  to  hold  the  pen.     Let  the  pupil 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  119 

continue  to  use  the  slate  till  he  can  form  all  the  let- 
ters with  ease,  and  give  them  their  due  pro}Dortion, 
and  be  able  to  unite  the  letters  with  uniformity  into 
words. 

If  this  method  should  be  adopted  in  our  district 
schools,  I  am  confident  it  will  be  found  a  great  im- 
provement on  the  present  practice,  which  is  to  give 
the  beginner  pen,  ink,  and  paper  at  first.  It  like- 
wise saves  a  great  expense ;  the  slate  and  pencil  not 
costing  an  hundredth  part  as  much  as  the  pen  and 
paper.  And  I  think  (and  teachers  who  have  used 
the  slate  agree  with  me)  that  the  scholars  improve 
faster  while  writing  on  slates,  than  they  do  while 
writing  on  paper. 

When  the  pupil  commences  writing  on  paper,  he 
should  have  a  book  made  of  at  least  four  sheets 
doubled  once,  and  well  sewed  and  covered.  At 
first,  ruled  paper  should  be  used.  The  book  should 
have  the  lines  written  out  full,  and  kept  free  from 
blots ;  and  each  pupil  should  have  an  inkstand  filled 
with  clear,  free  ink. 

This  article  in  our  district  schools  is  apt  to  be 
extremely  poor.  The  parents  buy  a  paper  of  ink- 
powder,  and  put  it  into  a  jug  with  the  prescribed 
quantity  of  rain-w^ater  and  vinegar.  For  a  time  it 
is  good ;  but  after  a  while  it  is  so  far  poured  out 
as  to  appear  thick.  The  practice,  then,  is  to  fill  up 
the  jug  again  with  vinegar  and  water.  The  ink  is 
now  thin  and  pale,  and  not  fit  for  use.  The  child 
carries  it  to  school,  but  does  not  like  it ;  and  takes 
the  liberty  of  running  to  one  of  its  neighbours  to 
borrow  its  penfuls,  as  they  may  be  required  while 
continuing  to  write.  The  rejected  inkstand  is  placed 
one  side,  and  used  at  the  evening  meetings,  religious 
or  otherwise,  for  candlesticks. 

The  inkstands  containing  good  ink  are  frequently 
employed  in  this  candlestick  service,  and  thus  all 
of  the  ink  in  the  school-house  is  spoiled  ;  yet  the 


150  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

clnldren  continue  to  use  it,  and  blot  their  paper,  and 
make  many  fruitless  attempts  to  form  the  letters. 
If  the  inkstands  should  be  so  fortunate  as  not  to  re- 
ceive this  greasy  treatment,  they  are,  by  the  care- 
lessness of  the  children,  left  unstopped,  the  ink 
permitted  to  evaporate  and  dry  up,  the  loss  of  which 
is  always  the  wreck  of  pens  from  their  frequent 
dives  after  that  which  is  not  to  be  found. 

The  inkstand  is  then  filled  up  with  water,  and 
the  diluted  stuff  is  used,  because  the  owner  never 
thinks  (or  perhaps  is  not  able)  to  get  that  which  is 
better.  Sometimes  the  ink  is  thick,  and  does  not 
run  freely  in  the  pen.  This  the  young  penman 
overlooks,  or  puts  up  with  in  the  best  way  he  can, 
though  never  able  to  make  a  fine  mark  or  a  smooth 
line.  I  say  then,  again,  that  the  article  of  ink  is  not 
sufficiently  attended  to  (either  by  teacher,  pupil,  or 
parent)  in  our  district  schools. 

The  pupil  being  provided  with  a  pen,  writing- 
book,  and  an  inkstand  filled  with  free,  black  ink, 
may  take  his  seat  at  the  writing-desk.  The  desk 
should  be  about  as  high  as  the  elbow  of  the  writer 
when  the  arm  hangs  down  by  the  side,  and  the  sur- 
face upon  which  the  book  is  laid  should  be  but  very 
little,  if  any,  inclined.  Most  of  our  district  school- 
houses  have  badly  constructed  w^riting-desks. 

Tiiey  are  injured,  and  stand  unsteady,  or  cut  full 
of  holes,  ridges,  and  furrows,  or  incline  almost  to  a 
perpendicular,  making  it  scarcely  possible  to  keep 
the  book  on  them,  or  too  narrow,  merely  admitting 
the  paper,  and  not  any  part  of  the  arm.  They 
should  be  altered,  and  made  firm,  wide,  and  almost 
parallel  with  the  floor,  and  of  several  heights  to  suit 
the  several  sizes  of  the  writers. 

The  pupil,  at  a  desk  of  the  proper  height,  should 
sit  in  a  healthy,  easy  attitude ;  that  is,  but  a  very 
little  bent  over ;  his  left  foot  a  little  in  advance  of 
his  right ;  his  left  arm  resting  on  the  table,  its  hand 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  151 

steadying  the  paper,  and  the  body  resting  consider- 
able weight  upon  it,  and  tlie  left  side  of  the  body 
somewhat  nearer  the  desk  than  the  right.  The  right 
arm  should  be  left  free,  either  to  be  thrown  out  or 
drawn  in  towards  the  breast ;  it  should  receive  no 
weight  of  the  body,  but  be  permitted  to  move  in  a 
rectilineal  manner,  unwearied  and  unrestrained. 

The  whole  arm  should  frequently  move,  but  the 
forearm  will  be  in  constant  motion,  permitting  the 
hand  and  wrist  to  advance  across  the  paper  as  fast 
as  the  words  are  finished.  The  pen  should  not  be 
taken  from  the  paper  while  writing  a  word,  even 
the  longest  one.  The  fingers  making  the  vertical, 
or  up  and  down  strokes,  and  the  movement  of  the 
forearm  the  side,  or  what  may  be  called  the  advance 
marks.  The  pen  should  be  held  with  the  feather 
end  pointing  directly  at  the  shoulder ;  it  should  be 
raised  straight  enough  to  pass  up  between  the  second 
and  third  joint  of  the  forefinger ;  the  thumb  a  little 
bent  out,  and  the  end  opposite  the  first  joint  of  the 
forefinger,  and  the  pen  resting  under  the  nail  of  the 
second  finger,  the  end  of  which  should  be  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  from  the  paper. 

Sitting  in  the  position  above  described,  and  having 
this  hold  of  the  pen,  the  pupil  may  begin  to  write. 
The  teacher  should  keep  a  close  eye  upon  the 
writer,  lest  he  change  the  position  of  the  body  or 
the  pen. 

This  position  is  easy  and  natural,  but  former  bad 
habits  may  make  it  a  little  unpleasant  at  first.  The 
paper  should  lie  square  before  the  writer. 

The  teacher,  having  his  pens  (or  pens  for  the 
younger  scholars,  for  the  older  ones  should  prepare 
their  own)  in  readiness  beforehand,  should  have  a 
stated  time  for  writing,  when  all  should  be  engaged 
in  it  at  the  same  time.  His  constant  attention 
during  this  exercise  should  be  directed  to  the  posi- 
tion in  which  his  pupils  sit,  to  the  manner  in  which 


152  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

they  hold  their  pens,  and  to  the  imperfections  of 
their  writing. 

When  a  disproportionate  letter  is  made,  the  child 
should  see  it  as  such — when  some  letters  are  too  far 
from  each  other,  or  crowded  into  too  small  a  space, 
the  pupil  should  be  told  of  it,  and  made  to  perceive 
it — when  the  letters  do  not  come  down  to,  or  reach 
below  the  line,  and  are  not  uniform,  the  writer 
should  have  his  attention  directed  to  this  irregularity, 
and  perceive  the  deformity  it  causes.  Constant 
watchfulness  is  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  teacher; 
for  when  the  strokes  of  the  j) en  are  made  correctly, 
and  with  care,  every  succeeding  mark  ivill  be  an 
improvement;  but  ivhen  they  are  made  ivrong, 
every  repeated  effort  strengthens  a  bad  habit,  and 
renders  the  pupil  more  and  more  unqualified  for 
becoming  a  good  ivriter  afterwards. 

As  I  have  before  said,  the  larger  pupils  should 
make  their  own  pens.  To  do  this,  each  one  should 
be  provided  with  a  good  knife,  and  be  instructed 
by  the  teacher.  One  reason  of  so  many  poor 
writers,  is  that  scholars  in  the  district  schools  seldom 
learn  to  make  their  pens,  and  consequently  are  un- 
able to  furnish  themselves  when  one  is  required  in 
after-life.  They  are  obliged  to  have  some  one,  and 
they  make  the  best  they  can,  but  it  is,  indeed,  a 
poor  thing. 

This  poor  pen,  added  to  what  they  have  forgotten 
of  their  writing,  or  perhaps  what  they  never  knew, 
makes  a  miserable  scrawl — their  straight  mark  would 
have  been  quite  as  honourable  ;  yet  they  have  spent 
much  time  in  learning  to  write.  It  is  but  of  little 
use  to  learn  to  write,  if  we  do  not  learn  to  make 
our  pens.  Let  all  teachers,  then,  who  attempt  to 
teach  the  one,  also  teach  the  other. 

Young  lads,  who  labour  night  and  morning,  and 
attend  school  during  the  session  hours,  should  be 
careful  not  to  over-heat  or  over-exercise  their  hands; 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  153 

if  they  do,  the  swelling  and  trembling  will  prevent 
them  from  holding  a  steady  hand  when  writing. 
Many  commit  this  imprudence  in  their  exercises. 
They  should  also  keep  their  hands  as  pliable  as  pos- 
sible. 

They  should  read  writing  more  frequently  than 
they  do ;  much  may  be  learned  from  examining  the 
beautiful  penmanship  of  others.  This  exercise,  too, 
would  enable  them  to  read  writing  with  more  fa- 
cility. They  should  practise  writing  without  having 
their  paper  ruled.  They  will  have  to  write  without 
lines,  and  they  sliould  begin  at  school.  They  should, 
also,  write  without  the  copy-plate  before  them. 
Many  are  able  to  write  well  with  this,  but  without 
it  they  can  do  nothing.  Break  away  from  it  in 
school,  and  it  will  be  easier  to  do  so  when  out. 


SECTION  XIV. 

THE    BEST    METHOD    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Geography,  till  within  the  last  twelve  or  four- 
teen years,  was  not  taught  in  the  majority  of  the 
district  schools  in  the  United  States.  At  the  pre- 
sent time,  geography  is  taught  in  nearly  every 
school ; — with  what  success  those  know  best  who 
have  patiently  examined  the  children  and  youth 
now  in  the  schools,  and  those  who  have  recently 
gone  out  from  them.  I  must  say,  after  visiting 
many  parts  of  the  New  England  states  and  the  state 
of  New  York,  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  acquaint- 
ed with  the  condition  of  the  schools  and  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  people,  that  I  discovered  far  less  geo- 


154  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

graphical  knowledge  among  the  children  and  the 
adults  than  I  could  have  reasonably  expected. 

1  knew  that  this  study  was  made  a  prominent  one, 
and  that  it  was  attractive,  and  admirably  adapted  to 
younger  scholars.  I  therefore  supposed  that  I  should 
find  many  considerably  advanced  in  the  study  of 
geography.  I  was  painfully  disappointed.  I  per- 
ceived that  nearly  all  of  the  children  had  studied  or 
were  studying  geography,  but  that  very  few  had  any 
thing  to  communicate  on  this  subject  in  an  intelligible 
manner.  I  sought  for  the  reasons  of  this  deficiency, 
and  am  convinced  that  I  have  discovered  some  of 
the  causes  which  prevent  the  scholars  from  obtain- 
ing this  delightful  and  useful  knowledge.  I  will 
mention  some  of  those  hinderances  which  I  per- 
ceived wherever  I  went* 

♦  But  we  come  to  the  question,  what  is  the  nature  of  the 
education  of  the  humhler  classes  which  is  extending  in  Eng- 
land, and  has  been  so  long  established  in  Scotland  ?  Is  it 
of  a  kind  to  impart  useful  practical  knowledge  for  resource  in 
life — does  it  communicate  to  the  pupil  any  light  upon  the  im- 
portant subject  of  his  own  nature  and  place  in  creation, — on 
the  conditions  of  his  physical  welfare,  and  his  intellectual  and 
moral  happiness; — does  it,  above  all,  make  an  attempt  to 
regulate  his  passions,  and  train  and  exercise  his  moral  feel- 
ings, to  prevent  his  prejudices,  suspicions,  envying,  self-con- 
ceit, vanity,  impracticability,  destructiveness,  cruelty,  and 
sensuality  ?  Alas!  No.  It  teaches  him  to  read,  write,  and 
CIPHER,  and  leaves  him  to  pick  up  all  the  rest  as  he  may!  It 
forms  an  instructive  example  of  the  sedative  effect  of  esta- 
blished habits  of  thinking,  that  our  ancestors  and  ourselves 
have  so  contentedly  held  this  to  be  education,  or  the  shadow 
of  it,  for  any  rank  of  society  !  Reading,  writing,  and  cipher- 
ing are  mere  instruments ;  when  attained,  as  they  rarely  or 
never  are,  after  all,  by  the  working  class  to  a  reasonable 
perfection,  they  leave  the  pupil  exactly  in  the  situation  where 
he  would  find  himself,  were  we  to  put  tools  into  his  hands, 
the  use  of  which,  however,  he  must  learn  as  he  may.  We 
know  well  that  he  will  be  much  more  prone  to  misapply  his 
tools,  and  to  cut  himself  with  them,  than  to  use  them  aright. 
So  it  is  with  his  reading;  for  really  any  writing  and  account- 
ing of  this  class,  even  the  most  respectable  of  them,  scarcely 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  155 

And  first,  scholars  do  not  easily  perceive,  and  in 
many  instances  never,  the  true  figure  and  motions 
of  the  earth,  from  its  representation  on  the  plane 
surface  of  maps ;  in  other  words,  there  is  a  want  of 
globes,  or  substitutes  for  them.  From  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  earth  in  the  geography,  the  child  is  told 
that  the  earth  is  spherical,  but  from  the  representa- 
tion of  it  on  the  map,  it  appears  a  plane.  That  which 
is  addressed  to  the  eye  is  much  more  impressive 
and  lasting  than  that  which  is  made  known  by  words. 
To  the  child,  the  earth  appears  a  plane,  and  the  map 
represents  it  as  such.  No  means  are  taken  to  correct 
this  wrong  impression.  It  is  true  that  the  book 
says,  and  the  teacher  likewise,  that  the  earth  is 
round  like  a  ball ;  and  the  pupil  learns  this,  but  he 
never  knows  it.  Children,  who  have  studied  geo- 
graphy without  a  globe  for  years,  have  frequently 
been  heard  to  say,  when  accidently  meeting  with 
one,  "  Why,  you  don't  mean  that  the  earth  is  round 
like  that,  and  turns  over  so  ?" — "  Certainly  ;  have 
you  never  learned  that?" — "Yes,  but  we  never  knew 
it  before."  By  the  help  of  the  globe,  too,  another 
error   obtained  from  the  map   is   corrected.     The 

deserves  the  name,  and  may  be  here  put  out  of  the  account. 
Reading  consists  in  the  recognition  of  printed  characters  ar- 
ranged into  syllables  and  words.  "With  this  most  abstract 
accomplishment  may  coexist  unregulated  propensities,  selfish 
passions,  sensual  appetites,  filthy  and  intemperate  habits,  pro- 
found intellectual  darkness  and  moral  debasement,  all  adher- 
ing to  a  man  as  closely  after  as  before  he  could  read  ;  and,  be 
it  marked,  these  qualities  will  give  their  bias  to  his  future 
voluntary  reading,  and  assuredly  degrade  and  vitiate  its  cha- 
racter; it  will  tend  to  strengthen  his  prejudices,  deepen  his 
superstitions,  flatter  his  passions,  and  excite  his  animal  appe- 
tites. Well  is  all  this  known  to  the  agitator,  the  quack,  and 
the  corruptor.  They  know  that  the  manual-labourer  can  read  ; 
but  they  know,  as  well,  that  he  is  incapable  of  thinking,  or 
detecting  their  impositions,  if  they  only  flatter  his  passions. 
No  just  views  of  life  have  ever  been  given  him,  no  practical 
knowledge  of  his  actual  position  in  the  social  system. — 
ISimpsQii, 


15b  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

pupil  perceives  that  but  one-half  of  the  earth  can  be 
seen  at  the  same  time ;  and  by  the  help  of  a  candle 
at  night,  or  in  a  dark  room,  the  motion  of  the  globe 
shows  in  a  moment  the  true  cause  of  day  and  night. 
Of  all  this  the  child  remains  ignorant  with  no  other 
assistance  than  the  map. 

Now  in  the  country  not  one  school  out  of  a  thou- 
sand is  furnished  with  a  globe  ;  nor  is  there  a  teacher 
among  as  great  a  number  who  has  ingenuity  or  in- 
clination sufficient  to  supply  a  substitute.  The  con- 
sequence is,  that  after  all  the  study,  the  pupils  are 
ignorant  of  these  two  facts  which  lie  at  the  founda- 
tion of  this  department  of  knowledge. 

Secondly,  pupils  with  young  and  weak  minds, 
limited  knowledge,  and  ignoraiit  of  the  vocabulary 
of  geographical  terms,  are  required  to  look  round, 
and  through  the  whole  solar  system,  and  over  every 
part  of  the  habitable  or  uninhabitable  earth.  The 
whole  of  creation,  as  far  as  man's  vision  or  imagina- 
tion ever  went,  is  brought  at  the  same  time  before 
the  unexpanded  infant  mind.  The  present  system 
of  teaching  geography  requires  the  child  to  grasp 
this  "  huge  globe"  with  all  its  myriads  of  animate 
and  inanimate  existences, and  the  innuifierable  bodies 
in  the  heavens  with  all  their  splendour  and  subli- 
mity. 

These  are  all  presented  at  once.  The  mind  is 
confused,  lost ;  and  by  directing  the  eye  towards 
objects  far  beyond  our  vision,  we  remain  ignorant 
of  the  things  around  us,  and  never  behold  those  in 
the  distance.  This  evil  arises  from  the  books  now 
in  use  in  most  of  our  schools.  This  necessary  stretch 
of  mind  soon  fatigues  the  pupil,  and  the  multiplicity 
of  objects  prevents  any  one  from  appearing  clear  and 
distinct. 

Thirdly,  scholars  learn  the  definitions  of  the 
names  of  places,  but  do  not  fo7'm  any  idea  of  their 
situation  and  ajjpearance.    For  example, — "  A  bay 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  157 

is  a  portion  of  water  extending  up  into  the  land/'  is 
repeated  by  the  pupil ;  but  not  in  one  instance  out  of 
five  hundred  is  there  any  idea  of  the  position  of  this 
body  of  water.  Scholars  commit  their  lessons  in 
geography  in  the  same  manner  they  do  their  lesson 
in  the  catechism  or  their  tables.  They  are  never 
told  that  this  language  describes  objects  and  places. 

The  study  is  a  business  of  merely  remembering 
words,  when  it  should  be  that  of  conceiving  distant 
objects  and  j)l^ces.  The  child  does  not  (as  geo- 
graphy is  now  taught)  make  a  transfer  of  the  mind 
to  the  things  described,  but  directs  his  whole  energies 
in  fixing  the  ivords  of  the  book  in  the  memory. 
Thus  the  study  of  geography  is  little  more  than  re- 
citing from  memory  a  number  of  words  and  sen- 
tences in  the  order  of  the  book,  having  no  meaning 
to  them  whatever. 

Fourthly,  the  representations  of  places  and  objects 
on  the  map,  by  marks,  lines,  and  spaces,  do  not 
cause  the  child  to  conceive  their  true  position,  ap- 
pearance, and  location.  The  language  of  the  map 
has  no  more  resemblance  (or  if  any,  not  enough  to 
be  of  any  assistance  to  the  pupil)  to  the  things  it 
represents  than  the  language  of  the  book.  What 
similarity  is  there  between  a  shade  on  the  map  and 
a  mountain  ?  What  is  there  in  the  former  that  can 
give  the  mind  any  idea  of  the  shape  and  magnitude 
of  the  latter  ? 

Again,  what  proportion  in  the  spaces  between 
places  on  the  map  and  the  spaces  between  places 
they  represent  ?  An  inch  in  one  place,  and  it  may 
be  one  hundred  or  one  thousand  miles  in  the 
other.  Maps,  then,  give  no  idea  of  the  contiguity 
or  remoteness  of  places  to  the  young  pupil.  They 
may  to  a  more  mature,  experienced  mind ;  one  that 
can  form  some  idea  of  the  proportion  between  the 
one  and  the  other ;  but  the  scholar  does  not,  cannot 
measure  by  this  artificial  relation.  The  teacher, 
0 


158  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

then,  must  assist  the  learner  where  language  and 
maps  necessarily  fail  ;  but  the  maps  and  the  lan- 
guage of  the  book,  to  the  teacher  represent  and 
describe  objects  and  places  so  well,  that  he  can  form 
a  correct  conception  of  them. 

He  supposes  the  child  can  do  the  same;* not 
thinking  that  it  is  a  new  language  to  the  young 
beginner,  and  one  that  has  no  resemblance  to  the 
things  described  or  represented  ;  or  if  the  resem- 
blance of  the  map  does  offer  a  little  help,  it  is  not 
enough  to  transport  the  mind  of  the  pupil  to  the 
place  or  object  in  question,  and  give  it  any  true 
conception.  He  therefore  does  not  come  down  and 
aid  the  pupil  where  other  helps  end,  and  his  scho- 
lars learn  geography  without  making  any  appli- 
cation of  it  to  the  earth!! 

Fifthly,  there  is  too  much  said  of  dress,  and  fash- 
ions, and  manners,  and  people  ;  the  pupils  are  led 
to  think  oi persons,  and  not  of  ^^/r/ce*.  Geography 
should  be  studied  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  the  surface  of  the  earth.  It  is,  in 
fact,  a  description  of  this  part  of  our  planet.  Its 
mountains,  rivers,  lakes,  islands,  oceans,  and  conti- 
nents should  be  particularly  attended  to.  The 
smaller  and  the  greater  artificial  divisions,  and  the 
varied  products,  and  the  broad  characteristics  in 
animals  and  men  in  the  different  climates  of  the  earth, 
should  be  made  known  by  the  study  of  geography. 

But  instead  of  these  noble,  heart-stirring  subjects, 
which  fill  the  mind  with  all  that  is  grand  and  beauti- 
ful, varied  and  harmonious,  the  frivolities  of  fashions, 
the  oddities  of  manners  and  customs,  and  the  petty 
differences  of  nations,  lead  away  the  mind,  and  direct 
the  attention  to  that  which  is  of  little  comparative 
value,  and  soon  lost  from  the  memory.  Geography, 
too,  often  becomes  the  biography  of  the  human 
race,  or  takes  the  place  of  history,  and  relates  the 
doings  of  men  and  nations.     But  the  object  of  geo- 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  159 

graphy  is  space,  not  time — the  actual  appearance 
of  things  as  they  noiv  are. 

By  not  perceiving  the  legitimate  suhjects  and 
objects  of  geography,  a  multiplicity  of  things  is 
placed  before  the  mind,  and  prevent  it  from  obtain- 
ing that  degree  of  knowledge  of  any  one  place  or 
subject  which  would  make  it  interesting.  In  this 
case  little  can  be  said  of  each  object,  and  the  atten- 
tion is  so  soon  diverted  that  there  is  nothing  fixed  in 
the  memory.  The  result  is,  that  all  the  time  and 
labour  has  been  lost — worse  than  lost — spent  in 
forming  bad  habits. 

These  are  some  of  the  difficulties  and  errors  which 
I  have  met  with  among  scholars  pursuing  the  study 
of  geography  in  our  district  schools.  I  admit  that 
these  evils  are  serious;  yet  I  believe  that  a  remedy 
may  be  had  and  applied  to  each  of  them.  If  im- 
proved books  and  maps,  in  connexion  with  a  globe, 
and  the  assistance  of  a  well-qualified  teacher,  should 
be  introduced  into  the  schools,  the  difficulties,  which 
now  make  the  study  of  little  value,  would  happily 
disappear. 

These  changes  can  be  made  if  parents  feel  the  im- 
portance of  educating  their  children.  A  suitable 
globe  may  be  purchased  for  one  dollar.  This  would 
be  sufficient  for  the  whole  school,  and  would  last, 
with  proper  care,  at  least  two  years.  Thus  a  district 
may,  for  fifty  cents  a  year,  furnish  their  school  with 
that  which  is  indispensably  necessary  to  the  study 
of  geography,  and  for  the  want  of  which  so  many 
difficulties  and  errors  have  been  encountered  to  dis- 
courage and  deceive  the  scholars  in  this  simple,  de- 
lightful study. 

Books,  which  are  not  merely  changes,  but  real 
improvements,  may  be  had  for  the  same  price  that 
is  paid  for  those  now  in  use  in  many  of  the  schools ; 
and  qualified  teachers,  even  if  the  wages  are  increased 
fourfold,  are  always  the  cheapest.     There  is  nothing 


IGO  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

necessarily  preventive  of  the  profitable  study  of  geo- 
graphy in  our  common  schools. 

I  will  describe  the  method  of  teaching  geography 
which  is  now  generally  approved  of,  and  adopted  by 
our  most  able  and  experienced  teachers.  Children 
five  or  six  years  old  may  commence  this  study  with 
advantage.  At  this  age  they  have  learned  the  names 
of  some  of  the  objects  which  are  included  in  geogra- 
phy ;  and  though  it  be  but  a  very  small  portion, 
yet  they  have  seen  a  part  of  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
On  this  small  part,  and  witli  the  few  natural  objects 
their  limited  range  has  made  them  acquainted  with, 
they  should  commence  this  comprehensive  study. 
The  rivulet  or  river  that  flows  by  the  side  or  near 
their  dwelling, — the  mountain  or  the  vale  that  may 
be  seen  from  the  window,  or  by  a  short  walk  or 
ride, — the  boundaries  of  a  field  or  farm,  or  their 
native  town,  which  may  be  traced  in  person  by  a 
little  travelling,  may  be  viewed  and  described  by 
the  child,  and  these  made  to  furnish  its  first  lessons. 

Having  seen  the  flowing  stream  of  water  which 
his  book  calls  a  river,  and  the  high  mass  of  earth  or 
rocks  which  is  called  a  mountain,  and  the  landmarks 
or  fences  which  divide  fields  and  farms,  and  from 
these  conceiving  the  invisible  lines  which  divide 
towns,  counties,  and  states,  he  is  prepared  to  form 
a  correct  idea  of  those  objects  and  places  which  he 
will  see  represented  on  his  map,  and  read  descrip- 
tions of  in  the  book,  but  which  he  has  never  visited. 
By  commencing  the  study  in  this  way,  he  has  a 
visible  definition  of  that  new  vocabulary  of  words 
and  terms  which  he  will  meet  in  his  geography. 

When  the  pupil  is  familiar  with  the  position  and 
distances  of  a  few  natural  objects,  and  can  describe 
their  appearance,  he  should  be  required  to  draw  a 
map,  and  represent  them  by  marks  on  his  slate  or 
blackboard.  Of  course,  these  will  be  rude  sketches 
at  first ;  but  let  there   be  suitable  instruction  from 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  161 

the  teacher,  and  repeated  trials,  till  a  pretty  correct 
outline  is  formed. 

In  the  first  place,  let  the  pupil  draw  a  map  of  his 
room  ;  representing  its  outlines,  its  benches  and 
chairs,  the  stove  and  fire-place,  the  instructer's  desk, 
&c.  When  there  is  some  likeness  in  this  sketch, 
let  the  map  be  enlarged,  and  take  in  the  school- 
house,  the  play-grounds,  the  fields,  and  the  more 
prominent  objects  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  Let 
such  lines  and  marks  be  used  to  represent  objects 
and  places,  now  under  the  eye  of  the  pupil,  as  are 
used  on  the  map  to  represent  similar  places  and  ob- 
jects which  the  pupil  has  never  seen. 

After  there  has  been  sufficient  instruction  and 
practice  on  this  enlarged  sketch  to  give  it  some  like- 
ness to  the  original,  let  a  map  be  drawn  which  em- 
braces the  neighbouring  river,  creek,  mountain,  and 
adjacent  farms.  Let  lines  representing  the  roads, 
the  boundaries  of  fields,  and  the  streams  of  water, 
be  delineated  with  proportion,  and  in  the  right 
place ;  and  let  marks  for  the  natural  and  artificial 
lines  and  objects  have  their  right  shape  and  position. 

A  mere  outline,  including  some  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous objects,  is  all  that  should  be  required  at 
this  stage  of  the  study.  The  pupil  now  knows  the 
use  of  a  map,  and  has  taken  the  primary  steps  in 
learning  to  execute  one  which  shall  represent  any 
part  of  the  earth.  With  a  little  assistance  from  a 
pleasant  teacher,  this  may  be  made  a  most  delightful 
exercise  for  young  pupils. 

The  most  pleasing  and  correct  method  of  study- 
ing geography,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  would  be  to  visit  in  person  every 
place  and  object  upon  the  globe.  As  this  is  more 
than  one  could  do,  even  by  spending  his  whole  life 
in  travelling,  and  as  the  greater  number  who  wish 
to  pursue  this  study  have  the  privilege  of  travelling 
over  but  a  very  small  part  of  this  earth,  some  other 
o  2 


1G2  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

means  must  be  taken  to  obtain  information  of  places 
which  they  will  never  see. 

The  only  means,  except  travelling,  are  the  close 
study  of  those  books  which  have  been  written  by 
learned  travellers,  or  people  residing  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  world,  and  which  contain  a  description 
of  the  objects,  beings,  and  surface  of  the  earth.  The 
best  book  of  this  class  is  the  geography,  accompanied 
by  a  map,  the  latter  having  such  a  representation  of 
the  earth  that  you  may  cast  your  eye  over  the  figure 
of  its  great  surface  at  once. 

By  a  close  attention  to  this  geography  and  map, 
you  can,  it  may  almost  be  said,  visit  every  spot  on 
the  earth  which  would  be  worth  your  notice.  They 
are  the  stages  and  ships  of  the  mind,  which,  leaving 
the  body  at  home,  carry  the  soul  around  and  over 
the  whole  earth.  You  should  take  a  passage :  and 
if,  in  passing  along,  some  remarkable  object  or  place 
is  pointed  out,  examine  it  well,  that  you  may  be  able 
to  describe  it  to  others,  whose  minds  have  stayed  at 
home  as  well  as  their  bodies. 

A  map,  now,  of  the  nativcf  state  should  be  drawn, 
and  all  the  information  had  concerning  it  which  the 
pupil  can  obtain  from  the  geography.  The  towns 
and  counties  should  be  shown  on  the  map,  and  some 
of  the  most  remarkable  natural  and  artificial  objects. 
A  map  of  the  United  States  may  be  drawn  in  out- 
line, and  the  scholar  permitted  to  get  some  general 
knowledge  of  each  state.  These  outlines  may  be 
sketched  on  larger  slates,  or,  what  is  better,  on  a 
blackboard ;  the  scholar  having  a  map  before  him 
for  his  guide.  I  know  of  no  intellectual  exercise 
more  beneficial  to  the  pupil  than  that  of  drawing 
maps.  It  develops  faculties  which  make  a  well- 
proportioned  mind. 

The  memory,  to  bring  back  to  the  attention  what- 
ever we  may  have  learned  concerning  the  place  the 
pencil  is  delineating — conception,  to  bring  vividly 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  163 

before  the  mind  that  which  the  map  represents — 
the  imagination,  in  combining  the  individual  ele- 
ments of  nature — abstraction,  in  separating  various 
objects  and  facts  from  each  other — comparison,  in 
painting  a  likeness  on  the  map — reason,  in  discern- 
ing the  connexions  of  objects,  and  the  relations  of 
the  parts  to  the  whole — taste,  in  the  close  examina- 
tion of  nature,  that  we  may  give  a  true  likeness,  and 
imagination,  by  sending  out  the  mind  to  the  most 
distant  part  of  the  earth,  are  all  in  constant  exercise, 
making  that  just  proportion  and  beautiful  symmetry 
so  desirable  in  every  mind. 

Each  state  should  now  be  taken  up  separately  by 
the  scholar,  and  made  familiar  to  his  mind,  till  the 
study  of  all  the  states  in  the  Union  has  been  thorough 
and  minute.  When  this  is  done,  the  teacher  should 
make  the  scholars  acquainted  with  the  globe,  if  he 
has  one,  and  if  not  he  can  use  some  round  substance 
as  a  substitute.  The  figure  and  motions  of  the  earth, 
with  its  natural  and  artificial  divisions,  are  what  the 
scholars  require  to  know.  They  now  see  the  cause 
of  day  and  night ;  the  great  quantity  of  water  on 
the  earth  ;  the  two  continents ;  the  position  of  islands 
and  lakes,  and  the  situation  of  the  United  States  in 
the  Western  Continent. 

After  several  lectures  from  the  teacher  on  the 
globe,  the  scholars  should  direct  their  attention  to 
Canada  and  Mexico,  and  then  to  South  America. 
Then  the  oceans  and  seas  should  be  studied ;  their 
situation,  comparative  size,  their  motions,  inhabi- 
tants, and  use,  made  known  to  the  inquiring  mind. 
There  should  now  be  daily  reference  to  the  globe. 
The  use  of  the  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude,  and 
the  equator  should  be  seen,  and  their  assistance  re- 
ceived in  learning  the  distances  and  positions  of 
places.  The  agreement  between  the  map  and  the 
globe,  should  be  seen. 

The  teacher  should  be  careful  tliat  the  scholars 


164  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

learn  the  direction  of  places  from  the  map.  From 
a  neglect  here,  scholars  who  are  considered  profi- 
cients in  geography,  do  not  know  whether  England 
is  north,  east,  west,  or  south  from  them.  They 
should  take  such  views  on  the  globe,  that  they  will 
know  at  once  the  direction  or  point  of  compass  of 
any  place  on  the  earth.  If  the  teacher  will  direct 
the  attention  of  the  class  to  this  particular  point, 
they  will  learn  the  relative  situation  of  countries  in 
a  short  time. 

This  is  necessary  to  be  known  on  many  accounts. 
News  are  daily  coming  from  every  quarter ;  and  when 
a  place  is  mentioned,  the  position  and  direction 
should  be  instantly  conceived.  I  have  often  seen 
scholars,  who  had  been  "through  the  geography," 
and  yet  did  not  know  whether  Maine  was  east  or 
south  ;  Virginia,  south  or  west.  This  ignorance  of 
direction  is  great,  and  it  should  have  the  especial 
attention  of  the  teacher. 

The  distances  of  places,  likewise,  should  be  taught; 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  state;  the  number  of 
miles  to  the  most  noted  places,  and  the  distances  be- 
tween them  should  be  familiar  to  the  pupil.  This 
is  seldom  the  case ;  but  it  is  useful  and  important 
knowledge.  The  boundaries  of  the  states  should 
be  so  familiar  to  the  mind  that  the  position  of  each 
one  would  occur  immediately.  A  map  of  all  the 
countries  in  Europe  should  be  drawn,  and  the  geo- 
graphy of  each  attentively  studied,  as  the  scholar 
may  have  time.  Asia  should  come  next,  followed 
by  Africa. 

The  particular  attainments  and  age  of  the  pupil 
must  direct  the  discriminating  teacher.  No  direc- 
tions but  those  which  are  very  general  can  be  given. 
I  would,  however,  earnestly  recommend  the  in- 
ductive method  which  I  have  described.  I  am 
satisfied,  that  from  the  constitution  of  the  mind,  and 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  165 

tl;e  nature  of  the  study,  it  is  the  best.  It  is  like- 
wise adopted  by  our  most  experienced  teachers ;  and 
I  hope  will  soon  be  received  wherever  geography  is 
taught. 


SECTION  XV. 

THE    BEST    METHOD    OF    TEACHING    ARITHMETIC. 

From  this  science  very  little  is  obtained  in  our 
district  schools,  which  is  of  any  jwactical  n^e. 
There  is  much  compulsive,  uncertain,  and  laborious 
study  of  arithmetic ;  but  it  is  often  in  vain,  from  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  taught.  Those  who  have 
received  nothing  more  than  a  common  school  edu- 
cation, obtain  their  practical  knowledge  of  the  science 
of  numbers,  not  from  their  instructions  or  study  in 
school,  but  from  their  own  invention,  and  the  re- 
wards of  experience. 

There  is  in  this  country  but  a  small  quantity  of 
arithmetic  in  use  w^hich  came  from  the  schools  ; 
necessity  has  taught  the  people  what  they  ought  to 
have  learned  at  school  when  young,  and  when  they 
were  wasting  so  much  time  and  money  to  no  pur- 
pose. After  making  such  observations  as  justify 
these  assertions,  and  reflecting  on  the  misapplication 
of  so  much  time  and  effort,  it  is  natural  to  inquire 
why  this  is  so. 

Are  the  books  in  use  filled  with  unintelligible 
rules  and  impracticable  examples?  Do  the  teachers 
omit  the  practical  application  of  the  principles  they 
teach  ?  or  do  the  scholars  but  half  know  what  they 
have  the  credit  of  having  learned  ?  To  each  of 
these  inquiries  we  may  reply,  to  a  great  extent,  in 
the  affirmative.     Many  of  the  books  now  in  use, 


1G6  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

arc  blind  and  difficult  to  the  scholars,  and  present 
the  art  of  calculating  by  numbers  in  an  unnatural, 
discouraging  form. 

The  magnitude  of  the  examples  is  so  great  that 
the  child  forms  no  correct  idea  of  the  numbers  which 
constitute  them.  The  reasoning  from  them,  there- 
fore, the  child  cannot  comprehend.  These  examples, 
likewise,  are  abstract  numbers.  The  child's  mind 
is  not  prepared  for  perceiving  abstract  numbers  and 
quantities  with  sufficient  clearness  and  distinctness, 
to  be  able  to  connect  them  with  practical  examples, 
the  only  use  any  one  can  make  of  them  which  is  of 
any  value.  The  pupil's  mind  is  perplexed  and 
wearied  with  these  large,  unmeaning  examples, 
which  he  considers  altogether  useless,  and  without 
any  practical  connexion  whatever. 

This  is  the  first  idea  which  is  obtained  from  the 
arithmetic ;  and  it  generally  goes  along  with  them 
until  they  relinquish  the  unpleasant  study.  In  most 
cases  the  figures  are  new  to  the  child,  and  the  quan- 
tities they  represent,  he  can  form  no  conception  of; 
and  a  darker,  more  disagreeable  study,  the  pupil 
hopes  he  never  will  have  to  undertake.  Such  is  the 
commencement  of  the  study  of  arithmetic.  What 
the  child  dislikes  at  first,  it  seldom  becomes  fond 
of  afterwards. 

The  first  step  being  but  imperfectly  understood, 
the  pupil  is  not  fitted  to  take  the  second,  and  conse- 
quently, from  being  unable  to  help  himself,  requires 
the  aid  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher's  explanations 
do  not  assist  him,  he  is  not  prepared  for  them  on 
this  point — he  does  not  understand  the  first  step. 
The  instructor  supposes  the  pupil  stupid,  and  the 
pupil  thinks  that  he  has  attempted  what  is  too  diffi- 
cult for  him  to  comprehend.  The  third  step  is 
tried,  but  with  less  success,  for  in  the  science  of 
numbers  the  after  steps  always  require  a  knowledge 
of  those  which  have  gone  before.     In  this  manner 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  167 

the  scholar  is  forced  a  short  distance  into  the  arith- 
metic without  knowing  where  he  is,  or  what  he  is 
doing.  The  whole  is  a  mystery,  for  in  reality 
nothing  has  been  learned. 

The  teacher  require^the  scholar  to  commit  the 
rules  to  memory,  but  never  gives  or  demands  a 
single  reason  for  one  of  them.  The  pupil  has  not 
understood  the  examples — knows  nothing  about  the 
facts  upon  which  the  rules  are  founded  ;  and  of 
course  does  not  understand  the  rule,  or  see  any 
direction  or  application  in  it.  The  teacher  is  pe- 
remptory for  the  memoriter  recitation  of  the  rule, 
and  the  scholar,  after  many  accusations  of  his  me- 
mory, and  much  protracted  labour,  is  able  (from  the 
mere  association  of  words,  for  he  has  not,  during 
the  hundred  readings,  got  an  idea)  to  repeat  the  rule 
without  the  book. 

I  have  frequently  met  with  some  of  the  larger 
scholars  who  could  promptly  and  accurately  repeat 
every  rule  in  the  arithmetic,  and  yet  they  were  not 
able  to  apply  in  practical  life  the  most  simple  one, 
nor  did  they  know  one  reason  for  any  of  them. 
How  can  they  expect  that  such  knowledge  will  be 
of  any  use  ?  The  great  thing  aimed  at  with  teach- 
ers, seems  to  be  the  ready  recitation  of  the  ride 
from  memory^  rather  than  the  ready  application 
of  it  to  practical  jnirposes. 

The  tables,  also,  which  ought  to  be  committed 
before  any  progress  is  attempted,  are  either  entirely 
overlooked,  or  less  than  half  learned.  The  child  is 
at  work  in  the  rule  of  multiplication,  and  does  not 
know  how  many  four  multiplied  by  four  make. 
Every  time  he  multiplies  he  is  sent  to  the  multipli- 
cation table.  This  constant  reference  to  that  which 
he  ought  to  know,  interrupts  his  operations — he 
forgets  the  last  step  he  took,  and  on  examination  the 
sum  is  wrong.  In  this  manner  he  goes  through  the 
rule  ;  still  ignorant  of  the  table. 


1G8  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

He  is,  perhaps,  ciphering  in  the  compound  rules, 
but  docs  not  know  one  of  the  tables  of  weights  and 
measures!  If  any  thing  is  done,  there  must  be  a 
constant  turning  back  to  the  tables :  and  there  they 
should  keep  till  they  know  them.  In  the  every- 
day transactions  of  business,  these  tables  are  required, 
but  the  pupils  have  never  learned  them,  and  thus 
are  compelled  to  spend  considerable  time  in  hunting 
up  a  book  that  will  inform  them,  or  to  make  con- 
fession of  their  ignorance,  and  beg  the  knowledge 
from  some  one  of  the  company — a  shameful  resort, 
indeed,  for  one  who  has  had  the  opportunity  of  ac- 
quiring this  necessary  knowledge. 

If  the  tables  had  been  thoroughly  learned  at  first, 
there  would  not  have  been  this  delay  and  embar- 
rassment in  working  the  sum  in  the  school-room,  or 
out  of  it  in  transacting  the  necessary  business  of  life. 
But  few  scholars  graduate  at  our  district  schools, 
who  are  able  to  recite  the  one-twentieth  part  of  the 
tables.  They  are  consequently  unprepared  for  the 
most  common  transactions  in  practical  life. 

There  is  another  defect  found  in  nearly  every 
school.  The  scholar  has  been  labouring  on  a  sum 
for  some  time,  but  cannot  get  it  right.  He  carries 
it  to  the  teacher,  who  takes  the  slate  to  himself  and 
does  the  sum,  the  scholar  at  the  same  time  looking 
at  something  else.  The  slate  is  returned  with  the 
sum  done  out,  and  the  boy  takes  his  seat.  Does  he 
now  examine  the  work  of  the  teacher,  and  see  what 
was  done  to  obtain  the  answer?    Not  at  all. 

Why  ?  Did  the  teacher  explain  it  to  him  ?  No. 
Has  he  any  more  knowledge  of  the  sum  now  than 
he  had  before  he  went  to  the  instructer  ?  No. 
What  does  he  do  then  ?  Why,  he  rubs  out  the 
sum  and  proceeds  to  the  next.  He  has  got  over  it, 
he  has  gained  so  much  towards  the  end  of  the  book; 
whether  he  can  do  the  sum  or  not  is  of  no  conse- 
quence to  him  or  trouble  to  the  teacher.     Such,  it 


DISTRICT  SCHOOL.  169 

is  frequently  seen,  is  the  indifference  of  the  teacher, 
and  the  superficiality  of  the  scholar. 

In  the  books  on  the  subject  of  arithmetic  now  in 
general  use,  the  scholar  meets  with  but  few  practical 
examples.  Their  nature,  and  the  form  in  \vhich 
they  are  presented,  differ  widely  from  the  examples 
which  occur  in  the  affairs  of  life.  The  youth,  not 
seeing  that  the  general,  leading  principles  are  the 
same  in  both  cases,  knows  not  how  to  apply  the 
knowledge  of  the  school-room  as  an  assistant  in  his 
calculations  when  abroad. 

I  have  known  lads  who  have  "gone  througli"  the 
arithmetic,  requested,  while  standing  by  the  counter, 
to  ascertain  the  amount  of  several  articles  of  goods, 
which  their  mother  or  their  sister  had  just  been  pur- 
chasing, but  they  would  hesitate,  mention  several 
sums,  and  after  all  take  the  merchant's  account  with 
not  even  practical  knowledge  sufficient  to  examine  it. 

Why  is  this  so  ?  Two  reasons.  The  books  are 
deficient  in  practical  exercises,  and  the  teaclicr  does 
not  direct  the  scholar's  mind  from  the  abstract  prin- 
ciples and  examples  of  the  book  to  their  practical 
use.  If  the  teacher  had  frequently  proposed  such 
sums  as  occurred  in  the  store,  the  scholar  would 
know  how  to  go  to  work,  his  experience  would 
give  him  facility  and  correctness,  and  the  instruction 
of  the  teacher  would  be  present  for  his  assistance. 

Teachers  do  not  bring  enough  of  the  sales  and 
purchases,  the  measurements  and  calculations  of 
the  world  into  the  school-room.  When  a  scholar 
has  learned  a  general  principle,  or  an  abstract  pro- 
position, the  teacher  should  see  whether  or  not  the 
pupil  can  make  any  use  of  it, — whether  he  can  show 
its  practical  bearing,  and  apply  it  to  the  evcry-day 
business  going  on  in  the  world.  But  this  is  seldom 
done,  and  the  scholar  is  little  benefited. 

If  a  promiscuous  sum  is  given  to  a  lad  tauglit  in 
this  manner,  he  does  not  examine  the  nature  of  the 
P 


170  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

sum,  and  find  out  the  relations  of  its  parts,  and  the 
first  steps  necessary  to  be  taken,  but  immediately 
tries  to  find  an  analogy  between  it  and  some  one 
which  he  has  been  told  how  to  work.  The  sum 
does  not  suggest  its  appropriate  rule,  and  he  knows 
not  what  one  to  apply.  After  doubtfully,  and  pro- 
bably incorrectly,  trying  one  rule,  and  then  another, 
and  then  a  third,  he  gives  up  in  despair;  the  sum  is 
laid  aside,  or  worked  out  by  the  teacher,  never  to 
be  looked  at  by  the  schohar. 

These  are  some  of  the  errors  in  the  presenc  sys- 
tems of  teaching  arithmetic.  The  reasons  w^hy 
scholars  obtain  so  little  that  is  of  any  practical  use 
from  this  branch  of  knowledge  in  our  district  schools, 
can  now,  we  think,  be  clearly  perceived.  I  will 
now  give  some  directions,  that  some  of  these  errors 
may  be  avoided  at  least,  and  that  the  science  of 
arithmetic  may  be  made  pleasant  and  useful.* 

When  a  child  begins  to  use  its  senses,  the  first 
thing,  probably,  which  takes  its  attention,  is  the 
figure  or  form  of  material  objects.  The  next  thing 
noticed  is  number,  or  the  existence  of  many  separate 
individual  objects.  Thus  the  child  learns  to  count 
a  few  of  the  first  numbers  very  early,  generally  be- 
fore it  knows  the  names  of  the  letters.  Having  the 
idea  of  number,  and  being  able  to  count  a  short  dis- 
tance, it  is  constantly  making  small  calculations. 
These  operations  are  performed  on  their  playthings, 
and  other  visible,  tangible  objects  which  draw  their 
attention. 

They  add  one  quantity  or  number  to  another : 
they  take  one  quantity  from  another,  and  they  divide 
a  quantity  into  several  parts.     The  method  which 

*  Since  I  wrote  this  work,  I  have  examined  "  The  Common 
School  Arithmetic,"  by  Professor  Davies,  and  I  am  happy  to 
say  that  to  this  work  I  can  give  my  unqualified  approbation. 
I  earnestly  desire  to  see  this  arithmetic  in  every  common- 
school  in  our  country. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  171 

children  take  to  perform  these  mental  operations  is 
not  always  the  most  expeditious;  and  hence  the  ne- 
cessity of  giving  them  instructions  in  what  they  are 
delightfully  and  naturally  engaged  in.  It  will  not 
do  to  give  them  rules  at  first.  The  judicious  parent 
or  instructer  will  encourage  these  natural  operations, 
performed  in  whatever  manner  nature  may  direct. 

After  they  are  able  to  view  what  they  have  done, 
and  reflect  upon  these  calculations,  some  defects 
should  be  pointed  out,  and  some  improvements  sug- 
gested. Such  encouragement  and  direction  will 
enable  children,  at  an  early  age,  to  form  a  great 
variety  of  combinations  of  numbers.  At  this  age 
the  mind  may  be  assisted  by  sensible  objects.  Ab- 
stract quantities  or  numbers,  the  child  cannot  dis- 
tinctly comprehend ;  a  visible,  tangible  sign  should 
be  used  to  represent  them. 

As  soon  as  the  child  is  familiar  with  the  exam- 
ples which  come  under  the  four  simple  rules,  addi- 
tion, subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division,  he 
may  commit  a  brief  comprehensive  rule  for  each. 
These  rules  being  founded  on  the  very  operations 
he  has  already  made  and  understands,  have  a  mean- 
ing in  them,  and  they  will  give  him  more  accuracy 
and  expedition.  Beans,  or  nuts,  or  any  small  objects 
which  children  may  handle,  can  be  used  to  represent 
the  abstract  numbers. 

For  example,  the  child  has  five  chestnuts,  and  we 
wish  to  make  it  perform  the  operation  of  taking  two 
from  five,  and  then  to  tell  the  remainder.  We  take 
away  two  of  the  chestnuts,  and  ask  it  how  many  it 
now  has.  The  reply  is  three.  Then  two  from 
five,  how  many  remain?  The  child  answers 
readily,  three.  An  answer  it  would  not  have  given 
if  there  had  not  been  a  visible  illustration  of  the 
quantity  taken  away  and  the  quantity  left.  By  in- 
creasing the  number  of  the  chestnuts,  and  then  di- 
viding them  among  several  individuals,  involved 


172  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

questions  in  addition  and  division  may  be  an- 
swered. 

These  visible,  tangible  signs  may  be  made  to  re- 
present almost  any  proportion  or  relation  in  the 
combination  of  numbers.  The  proportion  of  the 
rule  of  three  may  be  seen  at  a  glance.  Let  three 
chestnuts  be  placed  by  the  side  of  six  others,  and 
four  more  by  the  side  of  eight  others.  The  child 
then  sees  that  three  are  to  six  as  four  are  to  eight ; 
or,  in  the  words  in  the  abstract  rule,  the  first  term 
is  to  the  second  as  the  third  is  to  the  fourth ;  or,  let 
us  take  three  quantities  :  three  chestnuts  are  placed 
by  the  side  of  six  others,  and  these  six  by  the  side 
of  twelve. 

Now,  the  child  sees  that  three  are  to  six  as  six 
are  to  twelve.  By  this  means,  that  proportion,  at 
the  glance  of  the  eye,  is  made  known,  which  is  sel- 
dom perceived  by  working  every  example  under 
the  rule.  Visible,  tangible  signs  in  the  hands  of  an 
ingenious,  judicious  teacher,  may  greatly  simplify 
and  fiicilitate  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  They 
may  be  used  with  advantage  in  geometry  and  the 
still  higher  branches  of  mathematics. 

Care,  though,  should  be  taken  that  these  sensible 
signs  are  not  carried  too  far.  There  is  danger  when 
too  much  dependence  is  placed  upon  them,  of  making 
the  mind  averse  to  deep,  abstract  thought;  thus  pre- 
venting the  discipline  it  should  always  acquire  in 
this  study.  They  should  not  prevent  the  mind  from 
thinking — they  should  make  it  think  clearly. 

After  the  pupil  can  perform  with  ease  a  few  ex- 
amples in  each  of  these  simple  rules,  the  multiplica- 
tion table  should  be  learned.  This  is  always  a  great 
task  to  scholars.  It  is  with  difficulty  they  keep 
their  minds  fixed  upon  the  numbers,  and  they  gene- 
rally forget  oie  line  while  studying  the  next.  This 
discourages  them,  and  they  now  try  to  learn  the 
whole  at  once.     For  days,  and  weeks,  and  months. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  173 

and  frequently  years  they  read  it  over  and  over, 
but  yet  they  are  unable  to  fix  it  in  the  memory. 

I  have  known  scholars  imbued  with  a  thorough 
hatred  to  the  whole  science  of  numbers,  from  the 
difficulty  they  found  in  committing  the  multiplica- 
tion table.  Now  all  of  this  difficulty  is  occasioned 
by  not  mastering  one  part  at  once  ;  by  running  care- 
lessly over  the  whole  with  the  eyes  or  the  organs 
of  speech,  and  the  mind  directed  to  something  else, 
or  wandering  without  any  object  in  view.  If  the 
pupil  would  have  patience  to  confine  himself  to  one 
part,  and  commit  that  thoroughly  to-day ;  and  to- 
morrow another  small  part;  and  the  next  day  a 
little  more,  he  would  in  a  week's  time  so  fix  the 
whole  table  in  his  memory,  that  it  would  always  be 
ready  for  his  use. 

The  multiplication  table  is  easily  learned,  if  scho- 
lars will  study  right ;  and  this  should  be  the  business 
of  the  teacher  to  oversee.  The  whims  of  children 
on  this  subject  have  too  much  latitude  in  our  district 
schools.  The  memory  has  not  been  exercised,  and 
the  effiart  is  new  and  almost  always  difficult  to  be 
made  ;  but  the  teacher  should  remember  that  disci- 
plining the  mind  is  as  much  his  duty  to  his  scholars 
as  imparting  information.  The  habit  should  now  be 
formed  of  continued,  fixed  concentration  of  mind  to 
one  subject.  When  the  scholars  are  committing  the 
tables,  the  teacher  has  a  fine  opportunity  of  com- 
mencing this  discipline  ;  and  he  is  culpable  if  he 
does  not  improve  it. 

When  the  multiplication  table  is  familiar  to  the 
memory,  the  pupil  may  be  permitted  to  work  the 
examples  under  the  simple  rules,  as  far  as  the  com- 
pound rules.  Here  the  pupil  must  stop  and  learn 
the  tables  of  weights  and  measures.  A  knowledge 
of  these  will  not  only  be  necessary  to  understand 
and  perform  the  examples  under  the  compound 
rules,  but  absolutely  necessary  in  the  business  of 
p2 


174  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

after-life.  To  know  hovv  many  gills  make  a  pint; 
how  many  inches  a  foot,  and  feet  a  yard,  and  furlongs 
a  mile,  is  required  of  every  one  who  lives  in  the 
society  of  men.  These  tables  are  generally  learned 
so  superficially,  that  the  scholar  has  forgotten  them 
by  the  time  he  has  gone  through  the  next  rule  in 
advance. 

When  the  pupils  can  say  them  forwards,  or  back- 
Wards,  or  any  other  way  chance  may  present  them, 
let  examples  which  come  under  the  tables  be  given 
to  the  scholars.  Working  these  will  recall  the 
tables,  and  give  the  pupils  an  opportunity  of  seeing 
their  use  and  application.  The  teacher  should  give 
the  class  practical  sums,  not  found  in  the  book,  re- 
quiring a  knowledge  of  these  weights  and  measures. 
After  the  compound  rules  and  reduction  are  master- 
ed, the  pupils  may  advance  to  those  more  compli- 
cated. 

It  should  always  be  the  aim  of  the  teacher,  when 
questions  are  asked  by  the  pupil,  to  ask  such  other 
questions  as  will  enable  the  pupil  to  answer  his  own. 
Knowledge  which  we  discover  ourselves  is  more 
acceptable  and  useful  than  that  which  others  give 
us.  The  teacher  should  explain  the  rules,  show 
their  application,  and  then  throw  the  scholar  upon 
their  direction.  He  should  strive  to  make  the  pupil 
think  for  himself,  and  believe  that  the  book  is  all 
the  assistance  he  wants.  If  the  pupil  is  not  assisted 
by  the  rule,  a  second  explanation  must  take  place. 
No  part  should  be  passed  over  not  understood. 

Some  of  the  rules  of  the  arithmetic  have  a  more 
direct  application  with  the  labouring  classes  of  so- 
ciety than  others.  These  should  receive  a  particular 
attention.  The  simple  rules,  compound  rules,  rule 
of  three  direct,  and  interest,  are  among  this  number. 
A  knowledge  of  them  will  make  men  ready  and 
accurate.  Under  these,  the  teacher  should  multiply 
practical  examples,  making  them  familiar  in  every 
shape. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  175 

And,  lastly,  teachers  should  aim  at  rapidity  of 
operation  in  all  of  the  arithmetical  exercises.  It  is 
a  great  advantage  to  do  a  sum  quickly,  as  well  as 
accurately.  Great  rapidity  in  numerical  calculations 
may  be  attained  by  exercising  ourselves  in  thinking 
quickly.  This  habit,  likewise,  will  accustom  the 
mind  to  be  active  on  other  subjects.  Thus  the  two 
legitimate  objects  of  tli£  science  will  be  gained,  use- 
ful knowledge  and  mental  discipline. 


SECTION  XVI. 

THE    BEST    METHOD    OF    TEACHING    GRAMMAR. 

Grammar  may  be  termed  the  science  of  language; 
and  language,  in  the  most  extensive  sense,  is  the 
instrument  or  means  of  communicating  ideas  and 
affections  of  the  mind  and  body  from  one  animal  to 
another.  The  language  of  brutes  is  inarticulate 
sounds,  but  the  language  of  man  is  articulate  sounds 
and  written  signs  or  characters.  These  characters 
are  combined  into  words,  and  when  brought  before 
the  eye  (from  the  common  consent  of  men  and 
common  usage)  represent  to  us  the  ideas  of  others. 
When  these  elementary  characters  or  letters  are 
united  into  words  and  inscribed  on  paper,  or  any 
substance  which  receives  their  form,  they  are  called 
a  written  language. 

Grammar,  then,  as  a  science,  treats  of  the  natural 
connexion  between  these  words,  and  makes  known 
the  principles  which  are  common  to  all  languages. 
These  principles,  upon  which  the  grammar  of  a  lan- 
guage is  founded,  are  not  arbitrary  or  variable,  but 
fixed  and   universal.     They  are  formed  from  the 


176  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

natural,  permanent  phenomena  of  the  language  in 
the  same  way  that  the  principles  of  Natural  Philo- 
sophy are  formed  from  the  phenomena  of  nature. 
The  author  of  a  grammar  collects  the  facts  and  phe- 
nomena of  a  language,  and  from  them  forms  the 
principles  which  make  the  science  of  the  language. 

The  grammarian  sees  in  every  language  several 
classes  of  words  of  the  same  nature  ;  to  each  class  he 
gives  a  name.  For  instance,  words  which  represent 
things,  or  whatever  we  may  form  a  notion  of,  he 
calls  nouns.  Another  class  he  calls  verbs,  another 
adjectives ;  and  finally  he  perceives  in  the  English 
language  and  names,  nine  classes  of  words.  Their 
natural  distinctions  are  always  seen,  and  make  what 
is  called  the  nine  parts  of  speech. 

Again,  these  classes  of  words  have  various  rela- 
tions to  each  other,  and  are  sometimes  modified  by 
what  they  represent.  These  relations  and  modifi- 
cations give  rise  to  what  grammarians  call  number, 
case,  mood,  tense,  &c.  Every  individual  has  the 
same  opportunity  of  observing  these  facts  and  phe- 
nomena in  a  language,  that  the  individual  had  who 
wrote  the  grammar.  The  grammarian  examined 
the  language  as  it  is,  and  has  given  you  what  he 
discovered.  He  has  written  out  a  science  which  is 
so  obvious  to  all,  and  at  the  same  time  so  simple, 
that  all  may  learn  it ;  and  they  may  not  only  learn 
it,  but  they  may  make  a  practical  use  of  it  ;  for  the 
whole  object  of  the  science  is  to  enable  every  person 
to  write  and  speak  with  ease,  force,  and  correctness. 

To  do  this  is  very  desirable  to  all.  Every  person 
must  use  language,  and  when  it  is  used  well,  there 
is  a  force  and  beauty  given  to  the  ideas  which  they 
otherwise  would  never  have.  Thus  grammar  be- 
comes an  important  study  to  all.  Without  this 
study  men  will  use  either  too  many  or  too  few 
w^ords  in  expressing  their  ideas — they  will  use  those 
which  do  not  mean  what  they  intend   to  say,  or 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  177 

those  which  express  more  or  not  as  much  as  they 
mean.  They  will  put  words  in  the  wrong  place, 
making  their  ideas  obscure  or  unintelligible  ;  and 
thus  they  will  always  employ  that  pow^erful  instru- 
ment, by  which  they  act  upon  the  minds  of  others, 
in  an  awkward,  disagreeable,  and  powerless  manner. 

I  am  aware  that  grammar  has  been  considered  a 
difficult  subject,  especially  to  younger  scholars.  But 
I  .apprehend  that  most  of  the  difficulties  have  arisen 
rather  from  the  manner  it  has  been  taught,  than 
from  the  nature  of  the  science.  He  who  can  bring 
two  things  together  and  see  whether  they  are  alike  or 
unlike,  may  learn  the  grammar  of  his  language,  and 
be  able  to  make  use  of  what  he  has  learned,  whenever 
there  is  an  occasion  for  speaking  or  writing. 

I  know  how  dry  and  useless  scholars  in  our  com- 
mon schools  have  found  this  study.  The  custom  is 
for  all  to  study  grammar,  yet,  as  far  as  I  have  ex- 
amined, I  have  never  met  with  many  scholars,  edu- 
cated in  the  district  school,  who  w^ere  benefited  in 
the  least.  Nearly  every  pupil  could  repeat  the 
grammar  from  beginning  to  end  with  great  fluency. 
It  was  manifest  that  in  all  their  study  on  the  gram- 
mar they  had  exercised  no  other  faculty  than  the 
memory.  They  had  been  taught  to  consider  their 
grammar  as  something  that  was  to  be  committed, 
and  nothing  more. 

Years  had  been  spent  in  doing  this,  and  yet  the 
scholar  was  just  as  unable  to  distinguish  a  part  of 
speech,  to  apply  a  rule,  or  construct  a  sentence,  as 
if  he  had  spent  the  w^hole  of  that  time  in  committing 
to  memory  words  and  sentences  to  which  he  could 
connect  no  meaning  whatever.  The  scholars  had 
spent  months,  and  more  frequently  years,  in  parsing, 
but  had  used  the  dictionary  to  find  out  what  part  of 
speech  the  word  in  question  was,  and  then  guessed 
its  modification  and  government. 

If  they  guessed  what  the  teacher  considered  as 


178  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

right,  they  went  on,  and  nothing  further  was  said  ; 
if  the  guessing  was  wrong,  the  teacher  corrected 
them,  and  the  only  manifestation  they  had  to  give 
of  understanding  why  they  were  wrong  and  the 
teacher  right,  was  their  ability  to  repeat  the  teacher's 
correction,  and  then  pass  on  to  guess  out  the  next 
word.  Consequently  the  time  which  scholars  devote 
to  the  study  of  grammar  in  our  common  schools,  is 
spent  in  committing  to  m^cm^ory  and  in  parsing 
by  gness. 

Now  why  does  not  committing  the  grammar  to 
memory  qualify  ttie  scholar  for  distinguishing  parts 
of  speech ;  for  seeing  their  relations  to  each  other, 
and  for  perceiving  their  government?  Why  does 
he  not  parse  with  some  correctness,  with  some  cer- 
tainty of  the  truth  of  what  he  is  saying?  Is  the 
grammar  which  he  has  committed,  good  for  nothing? 
or  has  he  not  mental  capacity  sufficient  to  under- 
stand it  ?  or  has  he  been  taught  to  understand  what 
he  has  been  learning,  and  make  a  practical  use  of  it? 

We  believe  the  fault  is  suggested  by  the  last  ques- 
tion ;  though  the  books  are  not  faultless,  for  the  best 
system  we  have  seen  may  be  improved  either  in  its 
definitions  or  arrangement,  or  its  adaptation  to  the 
youthful  mind  ;  and  we  know,  too,  that  some  have 
commenced  the  study  too  young,  or  with  minds  not 
sufficiently  cultivated  ;  but  the  main  cause  of  scho- 
lars not  deriving  any  benefit  from  studying  gram- 
mar, is  their  not  understanding  the  rules  and  defini- 
tions they  have  learned. 

Scholars  seldom  know  even  the  object  of  gram- 
mar. How  can  they  know  what  application  to  make 
of  it?  But  few  teachers  know  how  to  assist  the 
pupil  in  the  study  of  grammar.  The  most  of  them 
do  not  understand  it  themselves,  and  it  cannot  be 
expected  that  they  will  give  what  they  do  not  pos- 
sess. I  know  of  nothing  in  which  our  district 
schools  are  so  defective  as  they  are  in  the  art  of 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  179 

teaching  grammar.  An  entire  change  is  necessary 
in  the  system  now  adopted. 

The  study,  instead  of  exercising  only  the  memory 
by  committing  the  words  and  sentences  of  the  book, 
and  the  organs  of  speech  by  pronouncing  after  the 
teacher,  should  appeal  to  the  judgment,  and  to  what 
has  already  been  learned,  for  assistance  in  making 
farther  progress.  We  think  the  study  of  grammar, 
if  rightly  taught,  is  level  with  the  capacities  of  scho- 
lars in  our  district  schools  at  an  early  age.  To  get 
a  practical  knowledge  of  the  science  is  not  difficult; 
the  disputed  points  in  the  philosophy  of  the  language 
may  be,  but  these  do  not  belong  to  the  learner. 
Scholars  are  continually  violating  the  plain  simple 
rules  of  their  language,  and  the  object  of  their  at- 
tending to  the  grammar  is  to  obtain  that  knowledge 
of  the  construction  of  the  language  which  will  enable 
them  to  avoid  this  inaccuracy,  so  offensive  to  good 
taste,  and  so  disgraceful  to  its  author. 

That  the  study  may  become  a  pleasant  and  profit- 
able employment  to  all  who  engage  in  it,  I  will  de- 
scribe a  system  which  has  been  thoroughly  tested, 
and  is  now  adopted  by  eminent  teachers.  It  has 
been  my  lot  to  study  grammar  in  the  same  way  it 
is  now  taught  in  the  district  schools,  and  I  am  con- 
fident that  I  learned  nothing  which  was  of  any 
benefit  to  me.  I  know  that  it  was  always  a  dark, 
uncertain,  disagreeable  study,  disliked  by  the  pupils, 
and  avoided  as  much  as  possible  by  the  teacher.  I 
have,  likewise,  personally  observed  the  practice  of 
the  system  that  I  am  now  about  to  recommend,  and 
shall  have  the  advantage  of  speaking  from  expe- 
rience. 

When  a  scholar  opens  his  grammar,  he  meets 
(after  a  few  preliminary  remarks)  with  the  names 
of  nine  parts  of  speech,  or  classes  of  words.  These 
names  or  words  are  entirely  new  to  him — he  has 
never  met  with  them  before,  and  he  of  course  has 


ISO  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

but  a  mere  conjecture  of  what  they  mean.  By  look- 
ing farther,  he  sees  these  technical  terms  defined. 
He  reads  or  commits  to  memory  the  definition  ;  but 
the  definition  has  by  no  means  given  a  full,  distinct 
idea  of  the  meaning  of  the  term. 

There  are  two  reasons  why  the  definitions  have 
failed  in  doing  that  for  which  they  were  intended. 
The  first  is,  the  definitions  in  the  grammars  now  in 
use  are  miserably  deficient  within  themselves.  They 
either  include  words  which  are  unintelligible  to  the 
scholar,  or  are  of  so  abstract  a  nature,  or  so  compli- 
cated, that  they  are  as  blind  and  as  unmeaning  as 
the  technical  term  itself.  The  great  importance  of 
giving  correct  definitions  to  this  art  has  never  been 
duly  appreciated. 

There  are  in  these  nine  parts  of  speech,  the  noun, 
the  article,  the  adjective,  the  pronoun,  the  verb,  the 
adverb,  the  preposition,  the  conjunction,  and  inter- 
jection, proper  and  natural  difierences;  and  the  best 
way  of  preparing  the  young  mind  to  distinguish 
these  differences,  is  to  tell  in  a  clear,  direct  manner 
what  these  terms  are.  Unless  he  has  a  true  percep- 
tion of  the  thing,  and  can  tell  what  it  is,  he  will  not 
know  how  to  distinguish  it  from  that  to  which  it  may 
have  some  resemblance.  These  defective  definitions 
cause  great  indistinctness  in  getting  the  meaning  of 
these  first  elements  which  constitute  the  science. 

The  second  reason  is,  scholars,  from  their  previous 
habits  of  study,  do  not  suppose  they  can  understand 
what  they  read.  They  have  never  been  required 
to  do  this :  in  learning  to  spell,  they  pronounced 
words  without  connecting  with  them  any  meaning ; 
and  they  have  learned  to  read  or  pronounce  words 
in  sentences  without  attaching  any  meaning;  and 
they  now  in  like  manner  pronounce  the  words 
which  make  the  definitions  of  the  grammatical  terms, 
without  even  thinking  the}'  have  a  meaning  which 
ought  to  be  perceived  and  understood  by  them. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  181 

Now,  that  a  scholar  may  commence  right,  he 
should  have  an  accurate,  distinct  definition  of  each 
part  of  speech.  If  the  book  does  not  make  the 
definition  of  the  term  clear  and  intelligible  to  the 
pupil,  the  teacher  should  do  this  by  examples  and 
illustration.  The  teacher  should  also  see  that  the 
pupil  thinks  of  what  he  is  saying,  and  that  he  under- 
stands what  the  words  mean.  Let  the  instructer 
select  a  noun  (and  this  should  be  done  when  the 
scholar  first  commences  the  study,  not  after  he  has 
committed,  as  the  usual  practice  is,  the  whole  gram- 
mar), and  request  the  pupil  to  tell  the  part  of  speech. 

This  the  pupil  will  generally  do,  if  he  under- 
stands the  meaning  of  the  word  that  is  selected, 
and  the  definition  of  a  noun.  If  he  does  not  un- 
derstand the  meaning  of  both,  he  will  only  guess ; 
there  will  be  no  certainty.  And  here  can  be  seen 
the  reason  of  so  much  guessing  in  the  parsing  exer- 
cises— ignorance  of  the  sentiment  they  are  parsing, 
and  of  the  definitions  of  the  parts  of  speech.  Let 
the  teacher  point  out  a  large  number  of  words  which 
are  names  of  things,  or  names  of  notions  in  the  mind, 
and  ask  the  pupils  their  part  of  speech. 

When  they  can  readily  distinguish  a  noun,  let  the 
teacher,  to  see  if  the  scholars  understand  the  defini- 
tion of  the  term  noun,  mention  some  words  which 
belong  to  other  parts  of  speech,  and  thus  ascertain 
whether  they  can  distinguish  the  noun  from  other 
words  by  its  definition.  Then  the  teacher  should 
require  the  pupils  to  point  out  nouns,  and  tell  why 
they  are  so.  When  they  are  accurate  and  ready  in 
this  exercise,  the  instructer  should  teach  them  to 
distinguish  between  the  singular  and  plural  numbers. 
This,  as  there  are  but  two  numbers,  they  will  soon 
do.  They  should  be  told  distinctly  what  made  a 
noun  singular  and  what  plural.  Then  let  them 
name  nouns  of  each  number. 

After  this,  let  them  learn  the  gender  of  nouns. 
Q 


182  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

Let  them  know  what  gender  means,  and  require 
them  to  mention  nouns  in  the  masculine  gender, 
and  then  some  of  the  feminine,  and  others  of  the 
neuter  gender.  On  this  they  should  practise  till 
the  gender  of  any  noun  is  perceived  instantly ;  and 
then  they  sliould  know  the  distinction  hetween  pro- 
per and  common  nouns.  After  this  the  person  of 
nouns  should  be  attended  to  ;  that  the  one  that  speaks 
is  first  person ;  the  one  that  is  spoken  to  is  second 
person  ;  and  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of  is  third 
person.  And  lastly,  in  this  first  exercise  with 
nouns,  let  their  "  case"  be  understood. 

Let  them  know  that  case  means  condition,  and 
that  this  condition  alters  according  to  the  relations 
the  word  may  have  to  others  in  the  same  sentence. 
Let  these  relations  be  seen,  so  that  the  case  will  al- 
ways be  known.  Now  the  scholars  should  parse  the 
noun  in  its  states.  Let  the  words,  for  example, — 
"  Father's  house''  be  given.  Let  them  tell  the  part 
of  speech  of  father's;  whether  a  proper  or  common 
noun ;  what  gender ;  what  person ;  what  number ; 
and  what  case.  Let  them  go  through  with  the  word 
house  in  the  same  way.  This  exercise  on  the  noun 
should  be  continued  for  a  considerable  time.  This 
is  all  interesting,  and  may  be  made  intelligible  to 
small  scholars.  By  this  means  they  will  understand 
the  terms,  and  learn  to  think  and  discriminate  be- 
tween the  several  conditions  of  words  of  the  same 
part  of  speech. 

At  this  point  let  the  two  articles  be  pointed  out 
by  the  teacher,  and  the  distinction  between  the  two, 
and  the  nature  and  use  of  each,  made  plain  to  the 
pupil.  Let  their  position  before  nouns  be  seen, 
and  the  general  use  of  "  an"  instead  of  "  a"  before 
words  beginning  with  a  vowel. 

After  this,  let  the  class  of  words  called  adjectives 
be  given  to  the  pupil  for  their  next  lesson.  Let  the 
teacher  show  the  class  the  nature  of  adjectives ;  that 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  183 

they  include  those  words  which  are  added  or  joined 
to  nouns  for  some  purpose,  generally  to  express 
their  quality.  Let  the  scholars  see  that  they  have 
neither  number,  gender,  or  case ;  that  the  adjective 
never  changes,  except  in  its  degrees  of  comparison  ; 
and  that  these  degrees  are  three.  Let  a  number  of 
words  from  the  class  of  adjectives  be  shown  to  the 
class ;  and  the  pupils  required  to  tell  why  they  are 
in  this  class  of  words. 

Now  the  teacher  should  select  the  three  parts  of 
speech  which  the  class  has  learned ;  say,  "  a  wise 
man,"  and  request  the  scholar  to  parse  them.  The 
scholars  then  say,  that  "a"  is  an  indefinite  article, 
and  they  tell  the  reason, — that  "wise"  is  an  adjec- 
tive, because  it  describes  the  qualities  of  "man." 
Then  the  pupil  should  be  taught  the  formation  and 
nature  of  the  positive,  comparative,  and  superlative 
degrees.  When  he  understands  these,  he  should 
put  those  in  the  positive  state  into  the  other  states, 
and  name  the  comparative  and  positive  states  of 
those  he  finds  in  the  superlative.  He  should  be 
exercised  for  some  time  in  learning  the  nature  of 
adjectives,  and  in  changing  them  through  their 
degrees. 

The  class  of  words  called  "pronouns"  should  be 
attended  to  next.  The  scholars  should  know  dis- 
tinctly what  a  pronoun  is, — the  difference  between 
the  three  kinds  clearly  perceived,  and  the  appropri- 
ate use  of  this  part  of  speech.  The  pupil  now  should 
point  out  the  words  that  belong  to  the  class  of  pro- 
nouns, and  likewise  tell  which  are  relative,  and 
which  are  personal,  and  which  are  adjective.  After 
sufficient  exercise  in  this,  the  scholar  may  go  to  the 
"  verbs." 

As  this  is  a  complicated  part  of  speech,  the  teacher 
should  proceed  with  order,  distinctness,  and  tho- 
roughness. Care  should  be  taken  to  give  the  pupil 
a  correct  definition  of  the  name,  "verb."     As  nouns 


184  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

are  names  of  things,  so  verbs  are  the  names  of 
actions. 

Let  a  number  of  words  belonging  to  the  class  of 
verbs  be  shown  to  the  pupils  ;  let  their  use  and 
nature  be  seen,  and  all  the  properties  in  which  they 
differ  from  other  parts  of  speech.  The  pupil  should 
not,  at  present,  attend  to  the  distinctions  between 
the  active,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  or  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  irregular  verbs.  It  is  sufficient  now 
to  fix  in  the  pupil's  mind  the  simple  definition  of  a 
verb,  free  from  any  of  its  modifications.  The  scho- 
lars may  then  be  taught  that  verbs  have  person, 
number,  mood,  and  tense.  The  last  two  words  are 
new  to  them,  and  should  be  defined  intelligibly. 

When  they  know  the  use  of  mood  and  tense  by 
a  variety  of  examples  from,  the  teacher,  they  should 
attend  to  the  different  moods  and  several  tenses. 
There  is  so  much  technical  phraseology  in  this  part 
of  all  grammars,  and  the  differences  in  the  forms  of 
the  verb  so  nice  and  abstract,  that  the  teacher  will 
find  it  necessary  to  be  "  copious  in  his  examples, 
and  ingenious  in  his  illustrations.^^  The  pupil 
should  conjugate  one  of  the  verbs  through  the  active 
voice.  In  doing  this,  the  appropriate  form  of  the 
moods  and  tenses  should  be  remembered. 

When  the  child  is  familiar  with  the  active  voice, 
let  it  attend  to  the  passive,  carefully  comparing  it 
with  the  active,  and  noting  all  the  distinctions. 
After  the  conjugation  of  this,  let  the  neuter  verb  be 
studied  in  the  same  way.  Then  the  auxiliary  verb 
"  to  have,"  and  the  irregular  verbs  may  be  learned. 
A  little  order  and  patience  on  the  part  of  the  student, 
and  familiar  illustration  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
will  soon  obtain  the  mastery  of  the  verb. 

When  this  is  done,  let  the  nature  and  use  of  the 
"  adverb"  be  the  subject  of  the  lesson.  The  words 
it  qualifies,  the  several  classes,  &c.,  the  pupil  should 
distinctly  see.     Then  the  "  prepositions,"  with  their 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  185 

usual  position,  and  their  use  in  connecting  words 
with  one  another  by  showing  their  relations.  Then 
the  "conjunction/'  with  the  distinction  between  the 
copulative  and  disjunctive,  and  the  use  of  each. 
And,  lastly,  the  "  interjection,"  serving  to  express 
the  emotions  of  the  speaker  or  writer. 

The  pupil  is  now  supposed  to  understand  the 
terms  that  he  is  obliged  to  use  in  the  study  of  gram- 
mar, and  also  to  be  acquainted  with  the  nine  sorts 
of  speech,  and  their  most  usual  modifications.  Much 
of  the  language  of  the  grammar  was  entirely  new  to 
the  scholar,  and  he  may  now  consider  himself  as 
through  the  driest  and  most  difficult  part. 

At  this  stage  of  the  study,  the  pupils  should  be 
detained  some  time  in  acquiring  readiness  and  ac- 
curacy in  naming  the  diflerent  classes  of  words,  and 
in  putting  them  through  their  respective  and  various 
modifications.  When  this  can  be  done  without 
hesitating  or  missing,  the  pupil  should  learn  and 
apply  the  rules  of  syntax.  For  this  exercise  he 
is  now  prepared ;  he  can  now  see  the  reason  of 
having  rules.  The  facts  and  phenomena  upon  which 
the  rules  are  founded  he  has  been  attending  to  ;  he 
knows  what  gave  rise  to  them, — how  they  were 
made,  and  their  true  use. 

By  this  method  he  has  learned  grammar  in  the 
same  way  that  he  acquired  knowledge  when  Nature 
was  his  teacher ;  the  particulars  before  the  generals, 
the  facts  before  the  principles.  To  fill  the  mind 
with  general  rules,  without  knowing  a  reason  for 
one  of  them, — to  compel  the  pupil  to  give  them 
without  seeing  their  application,  to  load  the  memory 
with  undefined  terms, — to  expect  the  pupil  to  dis- 
criminate between  things  which  must  and  will  appear 
to  him  to  be  the  same,  and  to  repeat  words  for  years 
without  annexing  to  them  one  idea,  is  the  present 
mode  of  teaching  grammar.  The  system  that  I  have 
now  recommended,  in  the  hands  of  a  competent 
q2 


186  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

teacher,  ivill  secure  interest  to  this  science,  and 
ensure  practical  knowledge  frorn  its  study. 

When  scholars  see  the  properties,  relations,  and 
government  of  words,  they  should  be  exercised  on 
false  etymology  ;  sentences  of  this  nature  being  given 
to  them  for  correction.  The  teacher  should  always 
make  them  give  their  reasons  for  the  alteration. 
Then  the  scholars  should  examine  sentences  which 
present  false  syntax.  The  instructer  should  always 
watch  for  faulty  sentences  in  the  conversations  or 
compositions  of  his  pupils.  When  he  detects  any, 
their  authors  should  be  required  to  correct  them  by 
their  knowledge  of  grammar.  The  scholar  should 
make  constant  use  of  this  knowledge  in  correcting 
the  bad  grammar  he  will  be  sure  to  hear  in  every 
society;  and  he  himself  should,  after  this,  "write 
and  speak  with  propriety." 


SECTION  XVIL 

HISTORY    SHOULD    BE    MADE    A    STUDY    IN    DISTRICT 
SCHOOLS. 

The  Ameiican  youth  have  sadly  neglected  the 
history  of  their  country.  I  know  of  nothing  so  easily 
acquired,  so  highly  important,  so  useful  to  all,  and 
at  the  same  time  so  thrilling  in  interest,  concerning 
which  the  American  people  manifest  so  much  igno- 
rance. Many  of  those  who  have  had  the  higher 
privileges  of  education  are  familiar  with  the  histories 
of  the  nations  of  antiquity  ;  they  are  well  acquainted 
with  the  histories  of  the  more  distinguished  nations 
of  the  present  day  ;  and  yet  almost  entirely  ignorant 
of  the  history  of  their  own  people  and  country. 


DISTKICT    SCHOOL.  187 

Histories  which  are  purchased  and  read  are  not 
those  of  our  forefathers;  but  of  foreign,  remote 
nations,  or  those  who  are  now  gone  from  the  earth. 
We  turn  our  attention  to  the  doings  and  sayings  of 
other  nations,  as  if  there  was  nothing  instructing  or 
interesting  in  our  origin,  growth,  and  greatness. 
How  seldom  do  we  meet  with  men,  even  among  the 
better  informed,  who  are  able  to  rehearse  their  coun- 
try's deeds,  or  to  call  the  names  of  those  who  toiled 
and  bled  for  their  country's  liberty!  This  is  not  the 
tribute  we  owe  to  those  who  bled  for  our  blessings. 

The  youth  of  this  free  and  independent  govern- 
ment should  prize  the  American  history  as  the  great 
register  of  civil  rights  and  noble  deeds.  They 
should  embalm  it  upon  their  memory,  and  be  ready, 
at  all  times,  to  repeat  the  story  of  their  liberties. 
No  lessons  are  more  useful  than  those  we  learn  from 
history.  They  are  counsels  from  the  experience  of 
nations.  The  light  that  history  sheds  upon  time 
now  gone,  illumines  the  time  that  is  yet  to  come. 
It  is  the  great  telescope  of  the  future. 

Then,  who  is  so  well  prepared  to  foresee  his  coun- 
try's destiny,  or  labour  for  his  country's  good,  as 
that  man  who  has  been  taught  by  his  country's  his- 
tory ?  What  man  can  value  his  nation's  liberty  and 
prosperity,  except  he  has  read  their  cost  ?  Yet,  how 
few  of  those  who  are  now  our  country's  hope,  and 
soon  will  be  her  men  and  rulers,  who  know  any 
thing  of  her  history!  There  is  scarcely  a  primary 
school  where  it  is  taught,  and  but  few  of  the  higher 
schools  make  it  an  important  study!  This  should 
not  be  so.  The  history  of  the  United  States  should 
be  taught  at  home,  and  at  school,  and  in  conversation 
by  the  way-side.  Every  member  of  society,  every 
citizen  of  this  commonwealth,  should  be  intimately 
acquainted  with  every  bright  example  or  important 
event  in  our  history.  These  should  be  the  themes 
of  our  highest  eloquence,  and  to  them  we  should 


188  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

ever  appeal.  What  is  there  of  more  interest  to  tlie 
American  youth  than  the  first  settlement  of  this 
great  continent? 

Where  did  these  bold  spirits  come  from,  and  what 
was  their  after  history?  Who  did  they  find  here, 
and  what  has  been  the  friendship,  or  enmity,  between 
the  native  and  the  European  ?  Wliat  was  the  cha- 
racter of  the  first  settlers  of  this  New  World,  and 
under  what  government  did  they  live  for  some  time? 
Is  the  government  the  same  now,  and  if  not,  when 
was  the  cliange,  and  what  were  the  causes  ?  What 
were  the  consequences  of  refusing  to  obey  the 
government  of  otliers,  and  declaring  ourselves  an 
independent  people  ? 

Who  were  the  great  men  foremost  in  this  noble 
work  ?  How  many  did  we  number  when  we  fought 
for  our  liberty  ?  Who  suffered  and  died  for  freedom? 
How  long  were  we  in  achieving  our  independence? 
Who  assisted  us  ?  How  much  was  the  nation  in 
debt  at  that  time  ?  Who  were  the  great  leaders  in 
the  struggle  for  liberty  ?  How  have  they  been 
honoured  ?  What  distinguished  men  have  lived 
since?  What  has  been  our  increase  and  prosperity? 
What  changes  are  we  making  on  this  continent? 
How  are  we  regarded  by  other  nations,  and  what 
are  our  prospects  ? 

Who  is  there,  that  enjoys  the  bounties  of  this  land 
and  the  blessings  of  its  liberty,  that  does  not  want 
to  answer  these  questions,  and  many  others  like 
them  ?  What  youth  is  willing  to  step  into  man- 
hood, ignorant  of  this  wise  and  deeply  interesting 
volume,  which  our  history  presents  ?  The  history 
of  the  United  States  should  be  taught  in  every  dis- 
trict school  ;  and  it  should  always  be  studied  with 
a  map.  Historical  information  will  give  interest  to 
places,  and  lend  a  charm  to  geography.  A  know- 
ledge of  history  will  tell  us  how  others  have  lived, 
and  enable  us  to  compare  ourselves  with  the  past, 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  189 

and  prepare  ourselves  for  the  future.  The  civil 
history  of  the  United  States  should  be  made  a  study, 
likewise,  in  all  our  elementary  schools,  as  well  as  in 
academies  and  colleges.  This  is  a  very  important 
part  of  education.  The  constitution  of  the  Unjted 
States  should  be  familiar  to  every  American  youth. 
This  document  should  be  studied,  with  some  ap 
proved,  judicious  commentary.  I  know  of  no  trea- 
tise on  the  constitution  so  well  adapted  to  schools, 
as  the  "  Outlines  of  the  constitutional  Jurispru- 
dence of  the  United  States ;  designed  as  a  Text- 
book for  Lecturers,  as  a  Class-book  for  Academies 
and  common  Schools,  and  as  a  Manual  for  popu- 
lar use.  By  William  Alexander  Duer,  LL.D, 
President  of  Columbia  College,  in  the  City  of 
New  York.''^ 


SECTION  XVIII. 

COMPOSITION    SHOULD    BE    PRACTISED    IN    DISTRICT 
•  SCHOOLS.* 

Composition  is  but  little  attended  to  in  our  com- 
mon schools.  Scholars  are  seldom  required  to  com- 
bine and  arrange  their  ideas ;  and  they  rarely  put 
their  knowledge  of  any  subject  into  the  form  of  a 
written  language.  This  is  one  of  the  great  defects 
m  the  present  system  of  teaching.  There  are  several 
reasons  for  this.  To  compose  well  is  not  a  neces- 
sary qualification  in  the  teacher,  under  the  present 
system  of  inspection.     In  ninety-nine  cases  out  of 

*  The  paragraphs  having  quotation  marks,  are  from  Wheat- 
ley's  Rhetoric, — an  admirable  work. 


190  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

a  hundred,  the  inspectors  never  inquire  or  ascertain 
whether  or  not  the  candidate  can  think  naturally 
and  connectedly  on  any  one  subject,  and  clothe  his 
thoughts  with  language  which  is  appropriate  and 
grammatical :  and  the  consequence  is,  that  but  few 
teachers  compose  with  ease  or  correctness. 

What  they  perform  with  dilFiculty  and  imperfectly, 
they  will  not  feel  disposed  (and  if  they  did,  would  be 
unable)  to  teach  others.  Hence  the  art  of  composing 
has  but  very  little  importance  in  the  estimation  of 
the  teacher,  and  is  entirely  disregarded  by' the  scho- 
lar. Parents  are  not  in  the  habit  of  composing, 
and  take  no  pains  to  have  the  art  taught  their  chil- 
dren. They  are  pleased  when  it  is  discovered  that 
their  child  writes  a  good  letter  ;  but  the  means  of 
ensuring  this  excellence  they  wholly  disregard. 

They  seem  to  forget  that  the  ability  of  expressing 
one's  thoughts  with  readiness  and  perspicuity,  is 
acquired  only  by  long  practice  and  good  instruction. 
They  do  not  seo  that  an  apprenticeship  in  this  is  as 
necessary  as  in  any  thing  else  ;  thus,  they  do  not 
consider  that  which  would  give  their  children  this 
desirable  qualification. 

"  The  scholars  suppose  composition  a  mystery '; 
something  that  does  not  belong  to  them,  but  to  those 
who  have  great  learning  and  a  wonderful  genius." 
They  look  upon  it  as  a  thing  impossible  that  they 
should  learn  to  write  ;  and  what  they  regard  so  far 
beyond  their  reach,  they  never  make  any  efforts  to 
obtain.  I  know  of  nothing  for  which  scholars 
usually  have  such  an  abhorrence,  and  which  they 
make  such  efforts  to  shun,  as  composition.  They 
struggle  with  the  vacant,  undisciplined  mind  till 
they  become  exhausted,  and  then  give  up  in  despair. 

*' They  feel  that  their  labour  has  been  fruitless  and 
wearisome,  and  are  heartily  glad  to  escape,  wishing 
never  to  resume  the  task  again. 

"  One  cause  of  the  difficulty  is  an  improper  choice 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  191 

of  their  subject.  They  generally  select  one  which 
they  know  nothing  of;  one  that  would  puzzle  a 
skilful  waiter  to  handle  intelligibly  ;  and  one  that  is 
abstract  and  indefinite,  and  altogether  above  their 
comprehension.  By  trying  to  grasp  subjects  of  this 
kind,  the  mind  perceives  nothing  distinctly ;  the 
thoughts  become  vague  and  uncertain,  and  the  little 
that  may  be  written,  after  much  toil,  is  unconnected 
and  dissatisfactory. 

''  Another  difficulty  is,  they  think  that  they  must 
write  something  that  no  one  else  has  written,  and 
that  their  very  language  must  be  in  a  new  idiom,  or 
else  it  cannot  be  considered  as  their  own.  Thus,  by 
selecting  subjects  with  which  they  are  unacquainted, 
and  which  their  minds  are  not  able  to  investigate, 
and  by  supposing  that  something  perfectly  original 
and  new  must  be  produced,  they  put  obstacles  in  the 
way  which  neither  patience  nor  perseverance  can 
overcome ;  and,  after  repeated  efforts,  they  consider 
composition  to  be  something  that  some  gifted  few 
only  have  executed  by  a  sort  of  magical  and  super- 
natural power. 

"  In  other  arts,  it  is  usual  to  begin,  for  the  sake 
of  practice,  with  the  easiest ;  but  the  reverse  takes 
place  in  learning  the  art  of  composing.  The  scho- 
lar has  a  harder  task  assigned  him,  and  one  in  which 
he  is  less  likely  to  succeed  than  he  will  meet  with 
in  the  actual  business  of  life.  The  scholars  choose 
such  subjects  that  they  know  not  what  to  say  or 
how  to  say  it. 

"  They  select  subjects  about  which  they  have 
scarcely  any  information,  and  no  interest, — concern- 
ing which  they  know  little,  and  care  still  less.  And 
hence  it  commonly  happens,  that  an  exercise,  com- 
posed with  diligent  care  by  a  young  pupil,  will  be 
very  greatly  inferior  to  a  real  letter  written  by  him 
to  his  friends  on  subjects  that  interest  him.  On  real 
occasions  of  after-life,  for  which  his  school  exercises 


192  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

were  designed  to  prepare  him,  he  will  find  that  he 
writes  both  better  and  with  more  facility  than  on  the 
artificial  occasion,  as  it  may  be  called,  of  composing 
a  declamation.  And  he  will  discover  that  he  has 
been  attempting  to  learn  the  easier  by  practising  the 
harder. 

"But,  what  is  worse,  it  will  often  happen  that  such 
exercises  will  have  formed  a  habit  of  stringing  to- 
gether empty  commonplaces  and  vapid  declamations; 
of  multiplying  words,  and  spreading  out  the  matter 
thin ;  of  composing  in  a  stiff,  artificial,  and  frigid 
manner ;  and  that  this  habit  will  more  or  less  cling 
through  life  to  one  who  has  been  thus  trained,  and 
will  infect  all  his  future  compositions. 

"  The  only  preventive  of  these  evils  is  a  most 
scrupulous  care  in  the  selection  oi  such  subjects  for 
exercises  as  are  likely  to  be  interesting  to  the  pupil, 
and  on  which  he  has,  or  may  (with  pleasure,  and 
without  much  toil)  acquire  sufficient  information. 
Such  subjects  will  of  course  vary,  according  to  the 
learner's  age  and  intellectual  advancement ;  but  they 
had  better  be  rather  below  than  much  above  him. 
Compositions  on  such  subjects,  and  in  a  free,  natural, 
and  simple  style,  may  be  thought  puerile  by  those 
who  practise  the  opposite  mode  of  teaching;  but 
you  will  see  a  picture  of  the  writer  himself;  boyish, 
indee'd,  it  may  be,  in  looks  and  stature,  in  dress  and 
demeanour,  but  lively,  unfettered,  and  natural,  giv- 
ing a  fair  promise  for  manhood ;  and,  in  short,  what 
a  boy  should  be.  In  education,  we  should  consider 
what  is  becoming  and  appropriate  in  each  period  of 
life. 

"  First,  subjects  for  composition  should  be  drawn 
from  the  studies  the  pupil  is  engaged  in ;  relating, 
for  instance,  to  the  characters  or  incidents  of  any 
history  he  may  be  reading.  Secondly,  subjects 
drawn  from  any  conversation  he  may  have  listened 
to  {with  interest)  from  his  seniors ;  or,  thirdly,  re- 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  193 

lating  to  the  amusements,  familiar  occurrences,  and 
every-day  transactions  which  are  likely  to  have 
formed  the  topics  of  conversation  among  his  fami- 
liar friends.  These  subjects  may  be  intermingled 
with  as  great  a  variety  as  possible. 

"  And  the  teacher  should  frequently  recall  to  his 
own  mind  these  two  considerations ;  first,  that  since 
the  benefit  proposed  does  not  consist  in  the  intrinsic 
value  of  the  composition,  but  in  the  exercise  of  the 
pupil's  mind,  it  matters  not  how  insignificant  the 
subject  may  be,  if  it  will  but  interest  him,  and  here- 
by afford  him  such  exercise.  And,  secondly,  that 
the  younger  and  more  backward  each  scholar  is,  the 
more  unfit  will  he  be  for  abstract  speculations,  and 
the  less  remote  must  be  the  subject  proposed,  from 
those  individual  objects  and  occurrences  which 
always  form  the  first  beginning  of  the  furniture  of 
the  youthful  mind." 

Instruction  and  exercise  in  the  art  of  composition 
ought  to  have  a  prominent  place  in  all  our  primary 
schools.  Collecting  and  arranging  their  ideas  would 
teach  the  scholars  to  think.  It  would  teach  them 
to  thinlr"patiently  and  correctly;  and  it  would  con- 
fine the  action  of  the  mind  to  one  subject.  Thus, 
the  exercise  would  correct  the  greatest  of  all  evils 
in  our  systems  of  education,  viz.  the  want  of  clear, 
connected  thought. 

It  would  do  more  ;  it  would  show  the  scholar 
how  much  he  knew  of  the  subject  which  he  has 
been  studying.  Scholars  are  generally  very  much 
deceived  respecting  the  real  amount  of  their  know- 
ledge. They  think  they  know  much  more  than 
they  actually  do.  After  they  have  read  a  book 
through,  or  finished  a  study,  a  few  general  ideas  or 
prominent  outlines  may  be  remembered,  and  from 
these  the  scholar  supposes  he  has  mastered  the 
whole.  But  when  he  is  required  to  communicate 
his  knowledge,  or  to  put  it  into  a  composition,  he 
R 


194  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

finds  that  he  has  in  reality  but  very  little  to  say; 
and  lie.  says  this  little  in  a  very  awkward,  unintelli- 
gible manner. 

When  the  book  is  laid  aside,  he  finds,  that  he  is 
unable  to  go  alone;  and,  as  respects  intelligence  for 
practical  purposes,  he  is  no  more  improved  than  he 
was  before  he  read  the  book.  But  if  scholars  were 
in  the  habit  of  composing,  they  ivoidd  think  when 
they  read;  and,  by  writing  their  thoughts,  they 
would  know  how  much  they  have  learned  by  read- 
ing. Practice  in  composition  would  give  scholars 
the  power  of  expressing  themselves  with  ease  and 
elegance. 

We  seldom  find  one,  even  among  the  most  learned, 
who  possesses  this  faculty ;  and  the  reason  is,  they 
have  not  been  in  the  habit  of  arranging  their  know- 
ledge, and  clothing  it  with  expressive  language.  Let 
all,  then,  who  would  learn  to  think,  and  who  wish 
to  ascertain  how  much  they  really  know,  and  to 
have  the  power  of  imparting  knowledge  to  others, 
pay  close  attention  to  the  exercises  in  composition. 

To  write  a  composition  is  not  so  difficult  a  thing 
as  scholars  imagine.  He  who  can  talk,  can  write ; 
and  if  he  can  talk  correctly,  he  can  write  correctly. 
Composition  is  nothing  more  than  conversation  put 
on  paper. 

And  yet,  I  have  seen  lads  who  would  continue  a 
narrative,  or  a  debating  speech  for  a  half  hour  or 
more,  and  still  not  be  able  in  the  same  time  to  put 
three  sentences  upon  paper.  If  they  had  been 
taught  what  composition  is,  and  had  practised  it, 
writing  would  be  as  easy  as  speaking,  There  is  no 
mystery  in  composition  ;  there  is  nothing  in  it  to 
torture  the  mind  ;  it  is  as  easy,  and  as  simple  as 
conversation ;  and  all  may  learn  to  write  with  fa- 
cility and  accuracy.  Let  there  be  the  right  kind 
of  practice,  and  any  one  will  soon  possess  the  ability. 

The  teacher  should  require  every  scholar,  who 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  195 

can  read  and  write,  to  produce  a  composition  every 
week.  He  should  see  that  the  proper  subjects  were 
selected,  and  that  the  scholars  had  suitable  assist- 
ance. The  compositions  may  be  handed  to  the 
teacher,  who  should  examine  and  correct  them. 
He  should  so  point  out  the  defects,  that  the  scholars 
would  perceive  and  avoid  them.  After  the  compo- 
sitions have  been  corrected,  the  teacher  may  allot  a 
certain  hour,  or  half  day  in  a  week,  for  reading  them 
publicly  to  the  school.  He  need  not  mention  the 
writer's  name,  nor  publicly  the  corrections  he  has 
made.  This  exercise,  if  judiciously  conducted,  may 
be  made  pleasing  to  the  teacher,  and  of  the  greatest 
benefit  to  the  scholar. 


SECTION  XIX. 

SOME  OF  THE  FIRST  AND  GREAT  TRUTHS  OF  NATU- 
RAL HISTORY  SHOULD  BE  TAUGHT  IN  ELEMENT- 
ARY   SCHOOLS. 

This  useful  and  intensely  interesting  subject  is 
almost  entirely  neglected  in  our  common  schools. 
Not  one  pupil  in  a  thousand  ever  learns  a  single 
lesson,  in  either  the  mineral,  vegetable,  or  animal 
kingdoms.  The  young  farmer  learns  nothing  of  the 
varieties  of  soil,  its  nature  and  composition,  and  its 
peculiar  preparation  for  different  grains, — he  obtains 
no  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  growth  of  vege- 
tables, or  the  properties  and  influence  of  the  "life- 
giving  air."  The  most  important  information  for 
his  business,  the  school  does  not  give  him. 

The  little  knowledge  that  he  acquires  of  his  busi- 
ness, he  is  obliged  to  get  by  ignorant  experience  and 


196  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

blind  observation.  Tlie  mechanic  does  not  study 
the  nature,  pliability,  and  uses  of  the  minerals  and 
metals ;  nor  does  he  learn  the  beauty,  strength,  and 
durability  of  the  various  timbers.  The  labourer  in 
his  experiments  has  no  science  to  assist  him ;  he  is 
preparing  nature  to  administer  to  his  necessities, 
without  knowing  her  rules  of  action !  He  knows 
nothing,  for  his  school  has  given  him  no  opportunity 
to  know  of  his  own  physical  nature,  nor  of  the 
properties  of  the  natural  world  around  him. 

He  cannot,  therefore,  conform  his  life  and  conduct 
to  the  relations  which  exist  between  matter  and  his 
physical  nature.  He  has  no  means  of  foreseeing  the 
infringement  of  the  organic  laws.  In  his  school  he 
has  never  learned  the  most  common  and  simple 
truths  in  physiology  or  anatomy.  The  structure 
and  uses,  the  layers,  the  mucous  coat,  &c.  of  the  skin, 
the  common  school  student  learns  nothing  of. 

He  is  not  told  that  the  skin  is  the  seat  of  perspi- 
ration— the  regulator  of  animal  heat,  and  the  seat  of 
absorption.  He  does  not  see  the  sympathy  between 
the  skin  and  the  other  organs  of  life,  nor  the  causes 
of  suppressed  perspiration,  (an  action  which  brings 
on  the  most  of  our  disorders,)  nor  the  connexion 
between  the  skin  and  the  nervous  system.  Being 
ignorant  of  this  vital  organ,  he  abuses  and  neglects 
it.  He  gives  no  attention  to  suitable  clothing,  to 
ventilation,  nor  to  washing  and  bathing ;  for  he  has 
no  information  on  these  subjects. 

He  has  learned  nothing  of  the  structure  and  action 
of  the  muscles,  nor  of  the  degree  and  kind  of  exer- 
cise which  they  require  to  give  them  strength,  elas- 
ticity, and  health.  He  has  no  acquaintance  whatever 
with  anatomy,  and  knows  not  that  the  bones  are 
composed  of  animal  and  earthy  matter,  and  that  they 
are  essential  to  motion,  and  to  the  security  of  the 
vital  organs :  he  does  not  study  the  growth  and 
decay  of  the  bones,  nor  perceive  the  advantages  of 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  197 

their  vitality  and  insensibility,  and  their  adaptation 
to  contained  parts. 

Of  the  nature  and  use  of  respiration,  the  structure 
of  the  lungs,  the  necessity  of  pure  air,  and  the  healthy 
condition  of  the  digestive  organs,  the  common  school 
pupils  never  hear  or  read  a  word.  They  grow  up, 
and  live  entirely  ignorant  of  the  nervous  system, 
knowing  nothing  of  its  functions  and  education  ; 
nothing  of  these  great  inlets  of  knowledge,  and  in- 
struments of  pleasure  and  pain. 

They  are  not  taught  even  the  causes  of  good  or 
bad  health,  nor  the  physical  consequences  of  im- 
moral conduct!!  Not  one  truth  of  this  science 
which  shows  that  man  is  "  fearfully  and  wonderfully 
made,"  is  taught  in  our  district  schools ! !  This 
need  not  be  so,  for  there  are  no  truths  more  simple 
or  pleasing,  than  some  of  the  most  important  facts 
of  ph)^siology.  There  should  be  a  text-book  on 
this  subject  for  our  common  schools. 

Although  there  are  "  sermons  in  stones,"  they  are 
not  "  delivered"  to  the  common  school  student. 
Neither  his  teacher  nor  his  books  speak  even  of  the 
first  principles  of  geology  or  mineralogy.  The 
earth,  our  common  mother — the  womb  and  the 
grave  of  every  living  object — the  great  companion 
and  benefactor  of  the  farmer,  has,  in  the  country, 
scarcely  a  teacher  to  make  knowm  her  nature,  her 
elements,  and  her  energies.  That  which  the  agri- 
culturist has  to  labour  with,  and  from  which  he  ob- 
tains his  "  blessings  and  his  bread,"  forms  no  part 
of  the  farmer's  education. 

Does  not  the  neglect  of  even  one  department  of 
natural  history,  show  a  great  deficiency  in  our  com- 
mon school  education?  But  the  vegetable  kingdom 
is  as  little  attended  to.  Plants,  flowers,  and  trees, 
find  no  teacher  in  district  schools.  The  places  they 
enliven  with  their  freshness,  sweeten  with  their 
fragrance,  and  cool  with  their  shade,  never  speak  of 
R  2 


198  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

their  bounty  or  their  beauty,  their  wisdom  or  theh 
Author.  Many  of  those  who  spend  their  lives  in 
nursing  flowers  and  cultivating  plants,  know  nothing 
of  their  structure  or  their  organs,  nor  even  their 
artificial  or  natural  classification!  What  additional 
interest  would  the  farmer  feel  amidst  the  freedom 
and  the  freshness  of  his  labour,  if  he  could  be  en- 
lightened with  even  a  faint  ray  from  the  science  of 
botany!  But  it  would  be  a  lonely  and  wandering 
ray  that  would  enter  the  room  of  the  district 
school. 

There  should  be  a  text-book  adapted  to  our  ele- 
mentary schools.  It  may  be  called,  "  Botany  for 
beginners."  Its  lessons  should  be  simple,  and  its 
arrangement  scientific  ;  but  not  dry  and  technical. 
It  should  treat  of  "  practical  botany,"  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. It  should  speak  of  the  principles  of  organiza- 
tion which  is  possessed^ by  all  plants,  and  which 
separates  them  from  all  inorganic  matter — their 
analogy  to  animals,  having  sap  for  blood,  woody 
fibres  for  bone,  pith  for  brain  and  nerve,  and  bark 
instead  of  skin ;  that  their  leaves  imbibe  air  as  we 
breathe  it — that  they  require  food  as  we  do,  though 
their  leaves  and  roots  are  their  mouths — that  the 
digestive  powers  of  plants  are  as  perfect  as  they  are 
in  some  of  the  lower  animals — that  they  imbibe  and 
expire  an  aerial  fluid  as  we  do,  and  that  they  emit 
oxygen  gas  while  we  absorb  it. 

It  should  show  that  earth  is  not  so  essential  to 
vegetable  growth  as  moisture,  and  that  light  is  neces- 
sary to  make  plants  flower  and  bear  fruit.  It  should 
point  out  the  nutriment  of  plants,  and  show  that 
it  is  various  combinations  of  inorganic  matter,  such  as 
earths,  salts,  water,  or  the  gases, — that  they  are,  like 
animals,  injured  by  too  great  a  supply  of  food  ;  for 
this  reason,  wheat  will  not  grow  in  any  of  the  Poly- 
nesian islands,  and  runs  too  much  to  straw  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  199 

It  should  enlarge  on  vegetable  improvability, 
showing  that  animals  have  this  power  far  less  than 
vegetables.  It  should  show  the  wonderful  transfor- 
mations which  have  arisen  from  this  improving  prin- 
ciple. The  rose  is  the  product  of  cultivation ;  the 
original  plant  being  the  common  wild  brier.  Our 
plums  are  the  descendants  of  the  sloe  ;  the  peach 
and  the  nectarines  of  the  common  almond  tree  ;  and 
filberts  are  the  improvements  of  the  wild  hazel. 
Apples  are  the  cultivated  successors  of  the  small 
sour  crab,  which  the  swine  will  scarcely  eat  The 
original  pear  is  a  pithy,  hard,  crude  fruit  Our  dif- 
ferent grains  were  once  in  a  state  very  like  grass, 
and  our  domestic  vegetables  are  the  artificial  pro- 
ducts of  human  skill  and  vegetable  improvability. 

From  this  improving  and  undecaying  principle 
in  plants,  the  earth  can  never  have  a  superabundant 
population.  But  nature  is  so  bountiful  in  her  spon- 
taneous productions,  that  no  art  has  been  so  little 
studied  as  agriculture,  and  none  so  little  improved. 
We  as  yet  know  nothing  of  the  productiveness  of 
vegetable  nature  ;  increasing  the  number  of  plants, 
only  increases  their  productive  power.  Nature  is 
improving  and  expanding  before  us  every  day,  and 
her  productive  laws  are  indefinite. 

This  the  farmer  and  the  horticulturist  should 
know,  and  they  should  obtain  such  an  elementary 
knowledge  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  while  attend- 
ing to  their  education,  that  they  may  have  the  as- 
sistance of  science  in  their  important  and  delightful 
labours.  The  vegetable  kingdom,  in  its  varied 
flowers,  foliage  and  stems,  its  graceful  and  delicate 
expansions,  its  playful  branches  and  gentle  move- 
ments, presents  one  of  the  most  interesting  volumes 
that  the  scholar  can  ever  read. 

This  volume,  so  full  of  wisdom,  elegance,  and 
religion,  should  be  open  in  our  district  schools.  It 
should  be  read  by  all  the  scholars,  and  expounded 


200  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

by  every  leaclier.  The  study  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom  has  an  intellectual  and  a  religious  influence, 
and  we  have  a  right  to  infer,  that  this  was  the  design 
of  the  Creator  when  he  willed  them  into  existence. 
They  are  pledges  of  his  affection  to  the  human  race — 
signs  of  love  to  prove  he  thinks  of  man.  Does  it 
not  become  us  then,  by  studying  them,  to  prove  that 
we  think  of  our  Creator  ? 

Zoology,  and  ornithology  likewise,  should  be 
studied  in  every  elementary  school  ;  and  when  he 
turns  to  the  animal  kingdom,  what  a  vast  volume 
lies  before  the  student,  of  tastes,  and  customs,  and 
manners,  and  ])ropcnsities,  and  passions,  and  con- 
summate instincts  !  !  Here  is  a  combination  of  al- 
lurements that  draw  us,  and  fascinate  us  with  a  mngi- 
cal  captivity.  There  is  in  the  realm  of  vegetables, 
every  thing  that  can  delight  the  eye  or  gratify  the 
taste ;  it  is  all  simple,  splendid,  variegated,  exquisite! 
But  in  animals  we  see  the  faculties  of  the  human 
mind ;  senses,  memory,  imagination,  the  principle 
of  imitation,  curiosity,  cunning,  ingenuity,  respect 
for  superiors,  are  all  discoverable  in  the  brute  crea- 
tion.    What  a  volume  for  our  study  !  ! 

Yet  it  is  not  made  a  text-book,  or  a  reading  book 
in  the  district  school.  The  very  animals  which  the 
farmer  raises,  and  the  mechanic  employs,  are  never 
made  a  study  in  the  whole  course  of  education. 
The  former  should  know  the  different  species,  and 
the  great  varieties  of  each  species — he  should  under- 
stand their  nature,  their  growth,  their  congenial 
habitudes,  and  their  favourite  and  wholesome  nourish- 
ment. If  he  has  this  knowledge,  he  vvill  be  making 
improvements  not  only  for  his  own  good,  but  for 
the  good  of  the  whole  human  race.  The  farmer  and 
the  mechanic  in  the  country  have  peculiar  advan- 
tages for  studying  natural  history;  for  they  are  daily 
seeing  and  handling  the  objects  of  their  lessons. 

To  facilitate  the  study  of  this  delightful  science, 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  201 

there  should  be  a  cabinet  of  minerals,  an  herbarium 
&c.  in  every  district.  This  cabinet  may  be  placed 
in  the  school-house,  and  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  schoolmaster.  After  a  small  collection  of 
minerals  and  plants  is  made,  the  teacher  should  give 
appropriate  lectures  on  them,  two  or  three  times  a 
v\reek,  to  all  the  members  of  the  school.  This  may 
be  done  in  addition  to  the  daily  recitations  of  the 
natural  history  class.  Knowledge  of  this  kind  is 
the  most  valuable  that  man  can  acquire.  It  enriches 
his  life  with  conveniences,  enlarges  his  views,  and 
lays  a  foundation  for  rational  piety. 

The  Great  Creator  has  made  every  object  on  the 
theatre  of  the  universe,  and  stamped  upon  every 
thing  a  divine  impress.  Whether  we  look  upon  a 
planet  or  a  plant,  we  shall  see  that  they  are  the 
works  of  God,  and  that  they  have  a  title  to  our  high- 
est admiration  ;  "  for  in  wisdom  has  he  made  them 
all.''  "The  earth  is  full  of  his  riches,  and  the 
heavens  declare  his  glory."  All  that  we  see  is 
God — all  nature  .is  his  awful  temple,  and  all  the 
sciences  are  porticoes  which  open  into  it. 


SECTION  XX. 


CONVENTION    OF    TEACHERS. 

It  is  my  earnest  desire  that  confei-ences  be  formed  among  the 
schoolmasters  of  each  canton. —  Cousiiis  Report. 

How  shall  teachers  become  better  prepared  for 
their  profession  ?  How  can  they  be  continually 
improving  their  minds  and  their  systems  of  instruc- 
tion? And  how  shall  every  teacher  receive  the 
light  which  the  more  experienced  are  constantly 


202  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

throwing  upon  the  subject  of  instruction?  We 
know  of  no  means  so  common  to  all,  and  so  favour- 
able, as  county  conventions  of  teachers.*  Hereto- 
fore there  has  been  but  very  little  communication 
between  teachers.  The  improvements  which  one 
has  made,  have  not  been  made  known  to  others ;  the 
incompetency  of  teachers,  and  the  bad  systems  of 
instruction,  have  been  concealed  ;  and  united  efforts 
of  teachers  have  not  been  made  to  elevate  and  honour 
their  profe^ision. 

Other  classes  of  men  have  had  their  conventions. 
Men  of  science,  ministers,  and  statesmen,  to  ensure 
enlightened  and  united  operations,  appoint  their 
conventions  to  redress  wrongs,  correct  errors,  and 
make  known  the  improvements  and  able  suggestions 
that  may  be  discovered  or  proposed  by  any  one  of 
the  parts.  The  wisdom  and  experience  of  these 
conventions  not  only  enlighten  the  people  and  sit 
in  judgment  upon  their  errors,  but  produce  through- 
out the  whole  country  similarity  of  feeling,  and 
harmony  of  effort. 

For  the  peace  of  the  church,  the  advancement  of 
science,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  such 
conventions  are  absolutely  necessary.  But  are  not 
conventions  of  teachers  equally  necessary  for  the 
improvement  of  our  schools  ?  Docs  not  the  difficult 
and  responsible  profession  of  teaching  require  all 
the  light  and  knowledge  that  can  be  obtained  on  this 
subject  ?  Does  not  the  incompetency  of  teachers 
invite  all  the  aid  that  can  be  furnished  from  those 
who  are  better  qualified  by  experience,  and   from 

*  It  will  therefore  be  more  expedient  to  form  small  societies 
or  meetings  of  schoolmasters,  for  three  or  four  weeks,  in  order 
that  they  may  go  over,  methodically  and  in  concert,  some 
special  portion  of  what  they  have  to  teach,  as,  for  instance, 
arithmetic,  singing-,  the  German  language  or  religion. 

This  plan  will  have  the  advantage  of  always  bringing  toge- 
ther men  of  equal  attainments  on  one  single  point,  which  will 
thus  be  studied  more  fundamentally. — Cousin. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  203 

other  literary  men?  .  Certainly,  every  one  will  say; 
such  assistance  is  highly  important ;  it  would  afford 
that  necessary  aid  which  teachers  now  have  no 
means  of  obtaining.* 

Yet  so  great  is  the  apathy  of  the  people,  that  we 
seldom  hear  of  a  teachers'  convention.  And  when 
their  proceedings  are  made  known  we  find  that  but 
few  attended,  and  that  but  very  little  was  done. 
The  manner  in  which  these  conventions  are  an- 
nounced and  conducted,  excites  but  little  interest; 
and  as  yet,  but  a  small  number  of  teachers  have 
been  profited  by  them.  But  how  shall  teachers 
improve  themselves  if  not  by  such  conventions? 
Works  on  education  have  a  very  limited  circulation. 

Not  one  teacher  out  of  a  hundred  reads  any  thing 
on  the  subject ;  nor  will  they  read  before  the  living 
voice  excites  their  attention.  There  are  but  few 
seminaries  for  educating  teachers,  and  rarely  a  lec- 
ture delivered  on  school-keeping.  Teachers  are 
seldom  qualified  when  they  enter  into  the  profes- 
sion, and  they  have  neither  the  assistance  of  teach- 
ers in  the  vicinity,  nor  intelligence  from  abroad, 
either  from  books,  or  the  speaking  lecturer. 

This  should  not  be  so.  There  are  means  which 
teachers  may  use  to  prepare  themselves  for  their 
profession,  and  for  improving  themselves  while 
engaged  in  its  duties.  And  I  know  of  none  so  ad- 
vantageous to  teachers,  and  that  is  attended  with  so 
little  expense  and  within  the  reach  of  all,  as  frequent 

*  This  excellent  measure  recalls  to  me  another  of  the  same 
kind,  which,  thouorh  it  forms  no  part  of  the  internal  regula- 
tions of  normal  schools,  has  equally  in  view  the  improvement 
of  the  acting  masters  ;  I  mean  those  conferences  of  the  school- 
master of  a  circle  or  district,  in  which  each  communicates  to 
his  brethren  his  own  methods  and  experience,  and  all  are  en- 
lightened by  the  interchantre  of  views  and  thoughts.  These 
conferences  are  voluntary,  it  is  true ;  but  the  government  en- 
courages them,  counsels  them,  and  often  arranges  them  itself 
by  means  of  the  school-inspectors.— Coj/jjm'*  Report, 


204  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

town  and  county  conventions.  If  these  are  gene- 
rally announced  and  faithfully  attended,  they  will 
not  only  be  highly  interesting  to  teachers,  but  of  the 
greatest  benefit  to  our  schools. 

Town  conventions  of  teachers  may  be  held  every 
month,  and  county  conventions  should  be  called 
every  three  months.  They  should  be  attended,  not 
only  by  teachers,  but  by  all  the  friends  of  education. 
Each  individual  should  go  prepared  to  contribute  to 
their  interest  and  usefulness,  and  with  a  hearty  de- 
sire to  promote  the  general  cause  of  education.  Each 
county  association  should  have  a  correspondence 
with  similar  associations  throughout  the  United 
States.  By  this  communication  all  the  improve- 
ments or  changes  which  have  been  made  may  be 
made  known. 

The  light  which  has  appeared  in  any  one  favoured 
spot  may  shine  into  every  part  of  the  Union.  The 
books  which  are  published,  either  to  be  used  in 
school  or  for  the  improvement  of  schools,  may  be 
made  known,  together  with  the  examination  which 
others  have  given  them.  The  periodical  works  on 
education  may  be  mentioned  and  examined.  Notice 
of  literary  conventions  may  be  given,  and  delegates 
appointed  to  attend  them.  Papers  from  the  state  or 
parent  society  may  be  read,  and  reports  from  the 
county  or  auxiliary  associations  made  out  and  sent 
to  the  parent  society. 

It  should  be  the  object  of  these  conventions  and 
communications  with  other  associations  to  discover 
the  origin  of  the  defects  in  the  present  systems  of 
instruction — to  ascertain  the  actual  condition  of  the 
schools  throughout  the  United  States — to  inquire 
into  the  character  and  qualification  of  the  teachers 
of  these  schools — to  find  out  the  number  of  children 
in  the  United  States  who  are  in  school,  and  the 
number  who  have  not,  or  do  not  use,  the  means  of 
education — to   ascertain  the  progress  the  scholars 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  205 

make,  and  the  amount  of  knowledge  which  they 
acquire  in  these  schools. 

To  discover  the  interest  which  parents  take  in 
the  education  of  their  children,  and  the  protection 
and  assistance  which  literary  men  give  to  primary 
education — to  convince  the  people  of  the  necessity 
of  general  intelligence  in  a  free  government,  and  to 
make  known  the  duties  which  every  one  owes  to 
the  free  institutions  of  his  country.  Such  are  some 
of  the  high  and  important  objects  of  teachers'  con- 
ventions. But  these  are  of  a  general  nature,  and 
belong  to  the  welfare  of  the  whole  country. 

The  mutual  imjyrovcmcnt  of  teachers  is  one  of 
the  first  objects  of  these  conventions.  To  render 
this  mutual  instruction,  each  teacher,  before  the  con- 
vention, should  describe  his  system  of  instruction, 
and  his  form  of  government.  Let  each  one  state 
his  experience  in  teaching  the  seyeral  branches  of 
an  elementary  education,  and  that  school  discipline 
which  he  has  found,  after  a  fair  tMal,  to  be  the  best. 
From  this  interchange  of  views  on  the  best  method 
of  teaching  and  governing,  many  valuable  sugges- 
tions will  be  elicited,  and  many  evils  and  defects 
disclosed. 

In  this  way,  teachers  will  compare  themselves 
with  each  other,  and  each  one  may  be  profited  by 
the  wisdom  and  experience  of  the  whole.  During 
the  interval  of  time  between  the  conventions,  the 
teachers  and  friends  of  education  should  collect 
what  information  they  can  from  abroad  on  the  sub- 
ject of  instruction,  and  make  it  known  for  the  bene- 
fit of  all  at  the  meeting  of  the  convention. 

Individuals  should  be  appointed  to  deliver  lectures 
before  these  conventions;  the  object  of  the  lectures 
being  either  to  illustrate  or  simplify  the  branches 
which  are  taught  in  our  common  schools,  or  to  make 
known  the  best  methods  of  imparting  instruction. 
Discussions,  also,  should  be  held  on  the  best  method 
S 


206  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

of  teaching  children  their  letters :  and  discussions 
likewise  on  the  best  method  of  teaching  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  grammar.^ 

Discussions  on  the  government  of  children  should 
be  held,  and  on  the  best  method  of  making  scholars 
feel  an  interest  in  their  studies,  and  also  how  a 
school  may  be  made  pleasant.  In  carrying  forward 
such  discussions,  and  in  delivering  lectures  before 
the  convention,  each  teacher  should  be  willing  to 
perform  his  part,  and  desirous  of  making  all  the 
transactions  before  the  convention  highly  interest- 
ing and  profitable  to  all  who  attend. 

By  such  a  free  interchange  of  thoughts  and  senti- 
ments on  the  business  of  their  profession,  teachers 
may  render  valuable  assistance  to  eacli  other,  and 
create  that  harmony  of  feeling  and  good-will  which 
is  so  necessary  for  their  own  happiness  and  the 
honour  of  their  profession.  From  a  want  of  this 
interchange  of  views  and  feelings,  and  the  influence 
of  such  associations,  teachers  have  not  been  pro- 
verbial in  their  friendship  for  each  other,  but  rather 
the  contrary.  Frequent  meetings  would  make  them 
better  understand  and  appreciate  each  other. 

Teachers  likewise,  at  these  conventions,  should 
propose  means  for  improving  the  intellectual  condi- 
tion of  those  parts  of  the  country  which  they  repre- 
sent. They  may  excite  an  interest  in  learned  and 
benevolent  men  towards  these  primary  schools. 
They  may  persuade  parents  to  procure  useful  books 
and  periodical  works  for  their  children,  and  io  give 

*  It  is  no  less  the  object  of  these  conferences,  to  furnish 
the  masters  with  an  opportunity  of  gaining  new  lights  and  of 
extending  their  own  knowledge.  Questions  in  grammar,  in 
the  German  tongue,  in  arithmetic,  &c.  will  therefore  always 
form  part  of  the  business  of  the  meeting ;  as  likewise,  the 
reading  of  works  on  education,  and  other  books  which  are 
likely  to  furnish  matter  useful  to  schoolmasters ;  the  practice 
of  singing,  and  reciprocal  communication  of  the  experience 
of  each. — Cousm''s  Report, 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  207 

them  a  fair  opportunity  for  the  improvement  of  their 
minds.  Teachers  may  make  known  the  imcomfort- 
ahle  condition  of  school-houses,  and  the  general  want 
of  co-operation  on  the  part  of  parents. 

If  a  statement  of  these  evils  should  be  made,  the 
districts  would  feel  it  their  interest  and  their  plea- 
sure to  pay  more  attention  to  the  education  of  their 
children,  and  their  teachers'  comforts  and  compen- 
sation. We  believe  that  teachers,  by  frequent  con- 
ventions of  this  nature,  have  not  only  the  power  of 
making  themselves  better  qualified  for  their  busi- 
ness, but  of  removing  the  great  indifference  which 
now  prevails  on  the  subject  of  education. 


SECTION  XXI. 

THE    LOCATION    AND  STRUCTURE  OP    SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

Many  of  our  district  school-houses  are  among  the 
very  worst  specimens  of  architecture.  The  con- 
struction of  these  edifices  has  received  but  little  at- 
tention or  aid  from  the  more  intelligent  part  of  the 
community,  and  has  been  left  to  the  care  of  those 
who  have  known  or  thought  of  no  other  model  but 
the  old  building,  and  who  have  studied  their  pecu- 
niary interest  more  attentively  than  the  education 
and  comforts  of  their  children.  I  know  of  nothing 
among  us  that  brings  so  great  a  reproach  upon  our 
affluence  and  intelligence  as  the  low,  dark,  filthy 
appearance  of  many  of  our  district  school-houses. 

There  is  no  part  of  the  means  of  education  that 
makes  a  stronger  demand  upon  the  learned  and  be- 
nevolent, and  none  which  requires  a  more  thorough 
reform,  than  the  location,  size,  structure,  and  fix- 


208  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

tures  of  the  buildings  in  which  nineteen  citizens  out 
of  twenty  receive  their  first  impressions,  their  first 
character,  and  the  principal  part  of  their  education. 

Objects  which  are  constantly  before  the  eye, 
allliough  they  may  be  inanimate,  have  a  wonderful 
influence  upon  the  mind.  This  being  acknowledged, 
the  situation  of  a  school-house  becomes  a  matter  of 
great  importance.  But  I  would  ask  the  reader  to 
think  for  a  moment  of  the  location  of  those  he  may 
have  witnessed. 

They  are  frequently  standing  on  a  bleak,  barren, 
stony  eminence,  where  the  winds  and  storms  have 
an  unbroken,  chilling  sweep,  and  the  hot  rays  of  the 
summer's  sun  one  constant  burning  glare,  where 
there  is  neither  grass  nor  leaf,  but  heated,  drifting 
sand,  or  sharp  and  flinty  rocks.  Such  is  the  burn- 
ing, desolate,  dreary  situation  of  many.  Others  are 
placed  on  some  marshy,  refuse  piece  of  land,  where 
the  stagnant  collections  of  water,  and  the  noxious 
vapours  poison  the  atmosphere,  and  make  the  situa- 
tion gloomy  and  sickly ;  and  others  again  close  by 
the  road's  side,  where  the  passing  of  travellers  and 
the  rattling  of  carriages  divert  and  distract  the  mind. 

In  addition  to  these  gloomy,  uncomfortable,  un- 
healthy situations,  and  constant  interruptions  from 
travellers,  there  is  frequently  found  close  by  the 
school-house  a  blacksmith's  shop  with  its  incessant 
pounding,  and  the  cooper's  shop  with  its  constant 
"rub-a-dub,"  or  the  public  inn,  with  all  its  noise  and 
bustle ;  so  that  if  there  is  not  bedlam  in  the  school- 
house,  there  is  all  around  it.  And  how  unfit  the 
business  and  company  of  such  places  for  children! 
How  demoralizing  the  influence  on  the  scholars,  and 
how  offensive  and  annoying  to  the  teacher ! 

The  structure  of  school-houses  is  frequently  as 
injurious  and  unpleasant  as  the  location.  They  are 
often  low,  and  cramped,  and  miserably  ventilated  ; 
tlie  room  sometimes  is  filled  with  smoke,  and  always 


DISTRICT  SCHOOL.  209 

with  impure  air ;  the  seats  so  high  that  the  scholars 
are  unable  to  touch  their  feet  to  the  floor,  but  must 
sit  bolt  upright,  without  a  back-piece,  perched  be- 
tween the  heavens  and  the  earth ;  the  writing-desk, 
in  front,  as  high  as  the  eyes  of  many  of  the  occu- 
pants ;  the  seats  so  arranged  that  the  movement  of 
one  disturbs  the  whole  seat,  or  in  such  a  position 
that  the  teacher  finds  it  difficult  to  get  near  the 
pupils  ;  and  the  windows  so  scarce,  or  so  small,  or 
so  filled  up  with  wooden  panes  or  hats,  that  but  little 
light  can  enter,  making  the  whole  appearance  dismal 
and  painful  in  the  extreme. 

0  how  entirely  opposite  to  every  thing  that  should 
accompany  and  assist  the  mental  and  physical  de- 
velopment of  children  !  In  this  torturing  condition, 
and  in  this  dismal  receptacle,  which  seems  to  be 
regarded  as  a  necessary  evil,  the  children  are  to 
remain  for  weeks,  and  months,  and  years.  Can  it 
be  thought  strange  that  they  should  dislike  their 
studies?  Can  it  be  thought  strange  that  they  should 
rejoice  when  they  are  no  longer  compelled  to  enter 
this  abode  ?     Who  would  not  "hate  instruction  !" 

1  would  by  no  means  say  that  all  school-houses 
are  of  this  description  ;  but  I  think  that  every  reader 
has  seen  many  that  were  attended  with  some  of  the 
inconveniences,  if  not  all,  that  I  have  mentioned.  I 
would  earnestly  request  all  to  notice  the  construc- 
tion and  location  of  these  houses,  when  they  are 
travelling  through  any  part  of  the  United  States. 
In  the  state  of  New  York,  and  in  the  New  England 
states,  these  buildings  are  superior  to  those  in  the 
other  states,  but  my  remarks  are  applicable  even  to 
many  of  the  school-houses  of  New  England  and 
New  York. 

But  as  my  desire  is  not   so  much  to  point  out 
defects  as  to  suggest  remedies,  and  to  make  known 
well-tested  improvements,  I  will  make  some  remarks 
s  2 


210  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

upon  the  proper  location,  structure,  size,  fixtures,  and 
appendages  of  school-houses. 

And  first,  the  location.  This  should  he  on  a  piece 
of  firm  ground,  at  some  distance  from  the  road,  and 
where  the  air  has  a  free  circulation.  The  place 
should  be  quiet,  and  protected  from  the  winds  and 
the  rays  of  the  sun  by  a  surrounding  grove.  The 
natural  scenery  around  the  house  should  be  varied 
and  beautiful ;  and  this  is  highly  important,  as  all 
natural  objects  as  well  as  individuals  have  an  influ- 
ence in  making  us  cheerful  or  otherwise,  in  propor- 
tion as  they  appear  pleasing  and  agreeable. 

When  the  parent  selects  a  site  for  his  own  dwell- 
ing, he  does  not  choose  the  most  worthless  corner 
of  his  farm,  nor  a  marshy,  gloomy  spot,  but  a  place 
that  is  dry,  light,  and  airy,  where  the  natural  scenery 
is  rich  and  beautiful,  and  where  he  will  not  be  in- 
commoded by  others.  Should  he  not  be  equally 
solicitous  for  the  comfort,  health,  and  happiness  of 
his  children,  by  selecting  a  pleasant  situation  where 
they  are  to  be  educated  ? 

A  child  is  educated  by  other  teachers  than  books 
and  schoolmasters.  Every  object  that  he  sees, 
whether  animate  or  inanimate,  teaches  him  ;  every 
flower,  and  plant,  and  shrub,  and  tree,  "  lessons  of 
heavenly  wisdom  teach  ;"  and  every  running  brook, 
and  singing  bird,  are  teachei-s;  the  air,  and  the  earth, 
and  the  ocean  teach ;  and  where  they  are  the  most 
eloquent,  parents  should  place  the  infant  mind. 

There  is  a  difference  in  nature's  teachers,  and 
parents  may  choose  the  wisest  and  the  most  winning 
for  their  children's  tutors.  Then,  let  a  lovely,  de- 
lightful spot  be  selected  for  the  school-house ;  let 
every  thing  around  it  be  comfortable  and  cheerful. 
Let  the  school  be  removed  from  the  noise  and  sight 
of  business,  and  from  every  thing  that  would  en- 
danger the  body  or  divert  the  mind. 
,     There  are  some  districts  which  are  not  privileged 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  211 

with  such  locations ;  and  the  parents  in  these  must 
choose  the  best  spot  they  have.  But  how  often  have 
I  seen  a  school-house  standing  in  the  very  worst  place 
in  the  whole  district,  because  that  spot  happened  to 
be  central,  according  to  the  surveyor's  chain,  when, 
within  fifty  or  a  hundred  rods,  a  shady,  quiet,  retreat, 
a  delightful  place  for  a  school  might  have  been  chosen. 

The  average  number  of  children  who  are  fit  sub- 
jects for  the  school,  in  the  districts  of  New  York,  is 
about  sixty.  To  accommodate  this  number,  the 
school-house  should  be  one  story  and  a  half  high, 
forty  feet  long,  and  thirty  in  breadth.  This  height 
will  admit  of  a  high  ceiling,  which  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  a  room  that  is  filled.  The  walls  should 
be  overlaycd  with  boards,  as  high  as  the  heads  of 
the  scholars,  and  the  remaining  part  of  the  wall  and 
the  ceiling  kept  pure  and  bright  with  whitewash. 

The  floor  should  be  level,  having  an  elevation 
opposite  the  door  for  the  teacher.  The  stove  should 
stand  near  the  door,  to  let  the  current  of  air  which 
rushes  in  drive  that  which  is  near  the  stove  and 
heated  to  the  distant  parts  of  the  room.  There 
should  be  two  entrance  doors,  an  inner  and  an  outer 
one.  The  outer  one  opening  into  an  entry  or  hall, 
of  sufficient  size  for  the  scholars  to  place  their  hats, 
cloaks,  and  bonnets.  The  inner  door,  opposite  the 
outer  one,  and  opening  from  the  hall  into  the  school- 
room. 

There  should  be  three  windows  in  each  side  of 
the  room,  and  two  in  the  end  opposite  the  door  and 
hall.  The  lower  part  of  the  windows  should  be  at 
least  five  feet  from  the  floor  ;  and  the  upper  sash 
should  be  lowered  when  air  is  admitted,  instead  of 
raising  the  under  one.  Windows  of  this  height  from 
the  floor,  and  of  this  construction,  have  many  advan- 
tages. They  prevent  the  scholars  from  looking  out ; 
and  being  farther  from  their  reach,  are  less  liable  to 
injury.     The  scholars  will  not  be  so  much  exposed 


212  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

to  the  air  when,  they  are  loive7^ed,and  they  will  per- 
mit the  impure  air  which  rises  towards  the  ceiling 
to  escape.  The  windows  should  have  blinds  on  the 
outside,  and  curtains  on  the  inside. 

The  desks  should  be  so  constructed,  that  when 
one  moves,  he  need  not  disturb  the  others  ;  and  so 
arranged  that  the  teacher  may  see  all  the  scholars 
in  the  face,  and  have  easy  access  to  any  one  of  them. 
The  benches  should  vary  in  height,  so  that  they 
may  suit  scholars  of  different  sizes.  The  height 
should  always  be  such  that  the  scholar  may  rest  his 
feet  upon  the  floor.  The  edge  of  the  desk,  next  to 
the  scholar,  should  be  directly  over  the  edge  of  the 
seat.  The  distance  between  the  surface  of  the  seat 
and  the  surface  of  the  desk  should  vary  at  least 
twelve  inches  among  the  different  desks  of  the 
school,  that  they  may  be  appropriate  for  large  and 
small  scholars. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  desk  should  be  nearly 
horizontal,  and  about  three  inches  higher  than  the 
occupant's  elbow  when  the  arm  is  flexed.  In 
many  school-houses,  the  surface  of  the  desk  is  so 
oblique,  that  the  pupils  find  it  difficult  to  keep  their 
books  and  slates  upon  tliem.  Others  are  so  low 
that  the  scholars  almost  lie  down  upon  them,  and  in 
this  way  remain  in  a  very  unhealthy  posture.  The 
body  should  he  kept  erect,  and  the  limbs  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  a  7iatnral  positio?i.  If  the  desk  is 
high,  the  arm  and  shoulder  must  be  raised,  and  the 
wrist  bent,  and  this  will  soon  occasion  pain,  and 
distort  the  body.  How  often  are  the  lungs  diseased, 
and  the  digestive  organs  deranged,  by  too  low  desks  ? 
And,  on  tlie  other  hand,  how  many  distorted  and 
deformed  bodies,  from  having  the  writing  arm  raised 
up  too  high  ?  Teachers  should  be  careful  that  every 
scholar  has  a  suitable  seat  and  desk. 

School-houses  are  poorly  ventilated.  The  breath- 
ing of  each  individual  in  the  room  destroys  nearly 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  213 

a  gallon  of  air  every  minute ;  and  the  effluvia  that 
is  constantly  escaping  from  the  body  passes  into  the 
air  of  the  room.  From  these  two  causes,  the  air  in 
the  room  soon  loses  its  vital  principle,  and  becomes 
loaded  with  disease.  Breathing  this  polluted  atmos- 
phere produces  the  pale  faces  and  meagre  forms  we 
so  often  see  among  scholars.  It  is  this  infected 
atmosphere  that  makes  the  teacher's  employment 
so  unhealthy. 

It  is  the  poisonous  state  of  the  air  that  occasions 
the  drowsiness  and  stupor  among  the  scholars.  It 
is  the  impure  air  that  produces  languor,  loss  of 
appetite,  and  disease  in  the  lungs.  It  is  a  wonder 
that  scholars  preserve  either  health  or  activity.  How 
many  have  lost  their  health,  and  destroyed  their 
constitution,  by  endeavouring  to  improve  the  mind, 
but  neglected  the  body !  Let  teachers,  then,  see 
that  their  school-rooms  are  well  ventilated,  and  that 
their  scholars  take  proper  exercise  in  the  open  air. 

Attached  to  every  school-house  should  be  a  play- 
ground for  the  scholars.  This  will  keep  them  from 
the  dangers  of  the  highway,  and  from  the  cultivated 
fields  in  the  vicinity.  This  ground  should  be  free 
from  every  thing  that  might  injure  the  scholars. 
Every  school-house,  likewise,  should  have  an  out- 
building, for  preserving  the  wood  from  the  weather. 
This  building  will  seldom  be  filled,  and  will  serve 
to  protect  the  scholars  from  the  storms,  during  the 
moments  of  recreation. 

There  should  be  a  good  spring  of  water,  or  a 
pump,  near  the  school-house.  This  convenience 
is  not  sufficiently  attended  to.  The  scholars  are 
obliged  to  disturb  and  injure  the  property  of  the 
nearest  neighbour,  and  sometimes  to  go  a  great  dis- 
tance whenever  they  wish  to  drink.  A  watering 
place  should  be  provided  for  the  school  at  a  proper 
distance,  and  kept  in  such  a  condition  that  the 
younger  scholars  may  obtain  drink  without  diffi- 
culty or  danger. 


214  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

SECTION  XXII. 

RHETORIC    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS.* 

There  is  scarcely  a  school-boy  in  the  United 
States  "  three  feet  high,"  who  has  not  been  told, 
and  repeatedly  told,  of  the  necessity  of  "  learning 
how*^  to  speak.  Scholars  are  by  no  means  to  sup- 
pose that  the  Author  of  their  being  has  given  them 
the  powers  of  utterance ;  these  powers,  they  are 
told,  which  will  enable  them  to  speak  to  their  fel- 
low men,  must  be  acquired  from  an  instructer. 
The  prevalence  of  these  sentiments  has  brought 
before  the  public  a  great  number  of  systems  and 
teachers  of  elocution.  The  instructors  in  this  art 
tell  us  where  to  find  the  emphatic  words,  where  to 
suspend,  raise,  or  lower  the  voice,  and  when  and 
how  to  give  the  thought  the  proper  action. 

This  encouragement,  and  the  generally  received 
notion,  that  every  one  must  learn  how  to  speak  in 
some  way  or  other,  has  introduced  these  artificial 
rules  and  instructions  of  rhetoric,  not  only  into  our 
professional  seminaries,  colleges,  and  academies, 
but  also  into  our  primary  and  higher  schools.  Our 
district  and  public  schools  have  their  weekly  season 
for  declamation ;  and  every  lad,  big  enough  to  say, 
"  Though  I  am  young,"  &c.  comes  forward,  and, 
automaton-like,  goes  through  with  his  oration,  ac- 
companying it  with  a  certain  number  of  changes  of 
position,  and  elevations  of  the  arm. 

The  practice  of  learning  to  speak  has  become  so 
general  and  so  popular,  that  the  teachers  of  our 
elementary  schools  consider  it  a  necessary  part  of 

*  The  paragraphs  having  quotation  marks  are  from  Wheat- 
ley's  Rhetoric. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  215 

a  republican  education  to  make  their  scholars  go 
through  all  the  stages  of  debate,  declamation,  and 
dialogue,  enlivened  occasionally  with  a  little  comedy 
or  tragedy.  "Now  what  must  be  the  eflect  of  all 
this  artificial  training  ?  What  must  be  its  influence 
on  the  school-boy,  when  neither  the  sentiments  he 
utters,  nor  the  character  he  assumes  are  his  own,  or 
supposed  to  be  so,  or  anywise  connected  with  him ; 
when  neither  the  place,  the  occasion,  nor  the  au- 
dience which  are  actually  present^  have  any  thing 
to  do  with  the  substance  of  what  is  said." 

"  Almost  every  one,  even  if  they  have  not  paid 
any  critical  attention  to  the  various  modulations  of 
the  human  voice,  has  observed  the  different  tones 
of  voice  which  the  same  individual  makes  use  of  in 
conversation,  from  those  which  he  uses  while  read- 
ing, or  speaking  in  public.  So  wide  is  the  difference 
of  the  tones  employed  on  these  two  occasions,  that 
it  seems  as  if  two  systems  (one  for  conversation, 
and  one  for  reading  and  speaking)  had  been  exer- 
cising the  voice  of  every  individual  we  meet  with." 
And  this,  in  fact,  is  the  case.  Nature  directs  our 
conversation,  but  art  has  taught  us  how  to  read  and 
speak. 

Says  Sheridan,  in  his  "Art  of  Reading,"  "  I  have 
often  tried  an  experiment  to  show  the  great  differ- 
ence between  these  two  modes  of  utterance,  the 
natural  and  the  artificial ;  which  was,  that  when  I 
found  a  person  of  vivacity  delivering  his  sentiments 
with  energy,  and  of  course  with  all  that  variety  of 
tones  which  nature  furnishes,  I  have  taken  occasion 
to  put  something  into  his  hands  to  read,  as  relative 
to  the  topic  of  conversation ;  and  it  was  surprising 
to  see  what  an  immediate  change  there  was  in  his 
delivery  from  the  moment  he  began  to  read.  %d 
different  pitch  of  voice  took  place  of  his  natural 
one,  and  a  tedious  uniformity  of  cadence  suc- 
ceeded to  a  spirited  variety;  insomuch  that  a  blind 


216  DISTRICT    SCHOOL, 

man  could  hardly  conceive  the  person  who  read  to 
be  the  same  who  had  just  been  speaking." 

Does  good  reading  or  speaking  require  this  differ- 
ence? If  so,  they  require  something  unnatural,  for 
we  see  that  men  converse  in  their  natural  tones. 
But  to  read  or  speak  in  tones  and  manners  which 
are  unnatural,  and  therefore  artificial,  will  never 
make  good  reading  or  speaking;  but  it  will  cause 
just  such  a  delivery  as  almost  every  individual  hy 
his  instructions  is  prepared  to  make, — stiff,  mea- 
sured, affected,  powerless,  and  in  the  highest  man- 
ner offensive.  Such  is  the  effect  of  not  preserving 
the  natural  tones  and  manner  while  reading  or 
speaking,  and  also  of  attending  to  artificial  schemes 
of  rhetoric. 

*'  The  advantage  of  a  natural  manner,  that  is,  a 
manner  one  naturally  falls  into  when  he  is  really 
speaking  in  earnest,  may  be  estimated  from  this 
consideration ;  that  there  are  few  who  do  not  con- 
verse so  as  to  give  effect  to  what  they  are  saying. 
Every  one,  when  conversing  earnestly,  delivers  his 
sentiments  with  much  more  clearness,  force,  and 
elegance  than  he  would  read  the  same  sentiment  if 
it  was  written  down  in  a  book. 

"  Our  advice,  then,  would  be,  to  follow  the  natural 
manner.  The  practical  rule  that  we  would  recom- 
mend is,  not  only  to  omit  any  studied  attention  to 
the  voice,  but  studiously  to  withdraw  the  thoughts 
from  it,  and  to  dwell  as  intently  as  j)ossihle  on 
the  sense;  trusting  to  nature  to  suggest  spon- 
taneously the  proper  emphasis  and  tones. 

"  He  who  really  understands  what  he  is  reading 
will  be  likely  to  read  as  if  he  understood  it,  and 
thus  to  make  others  understand  it;  and  he  who 
feels  what  he  reads,  and  is  absorbed  with  that  feel- 
ing, will  be  likely  to  communicate  the  same  im- 
pression to  his  hearers.  But  this  cannot  be  the  case 
if  the  speaker  or  reader  is  occupied  with  the  thought 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  217 

of  what  their  opinion  will  be  of  his  delivery,  and 
how  his  voice  ought  to  be  regulated  ;  if,  in  short, 
he  is  thinking  of  himself,  and  of  course  taking  his 
attention  from  that  which  ought  to  occupy  it  exclu- 
sively. 

"  Some  may  suppose  that  the  natural  manner 
which  we  have  recommended,  amounts  to  the  same 
thing  as  taking  no  pains  at  all;  and  after  trying 
the  experiment  by  reading  or  speaking  carelessly 
instead  of  naturally,  their  ill  success  will  probably 
lead  them  to  censure  the  proposed  method.  But 
it  is  no  easy  task  to  fix  the  mind  on  the  meaning, 
in  the  manner,  and  to  the  degree  now  proposed. 
When  one  is  reading  any  thing  that  is  familiar,  his 
thoughts  are  apt  to  wander  to  other  subjects,  though 
perhaps  such  as  are  connected  with  that  which  he 
is  reading ;  if,  again,  it  be  something  new  to  him, 
he  is  apt  (not  indeed  to  wander  to  another  subject) 
to  get  the  start,  as  it  were,  of  his  readers,  and  to  be 
thinking,  while  uttering  each  sentence,  not  of  that, 
but  of  the  sentence  which  comes  next. 

"And  in  both  cases,  if  he  is  careful  to  avoid  those 
faults,  and  is  desirous  of  reading  well,  it  is  a  matter 
of  no  small  difficulty,  and  calls  for  a  constant  effort 
to  prevent  the  mind  from  wandering  in  another 
direction,  viz.  into  thoughts  respecting  his  own 
voice — respecting  the  effect  produced  by  each 
sound — the  approbation  he  hopes  from  the  hearers, 
&c.  And  this  is  the  prevailing  fault  of  those  who 
are  commonly  said  to  take  great  pains  in  their 
reading ;  pains  which  will  always  be  taken  in  vain, 
with  a  view  to  the  true  object  to  be  aimed  at,  as 
long  as  the  effort  is  thus  applied  in  a  wrong  di- 
rection. 

"With  a  view,  indeed,  to  a  very  different  object, 

— ^the  approbation  bestowed  on  the  reading, — this 

artificial  delivery  will  often  be  more  successful  than 

the  natural.     Pompous  spouting,  and  many  other 

T 


218  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

descriptions  of  unnatural  tone  and  measured  cadence, 
are  frequently  admired  as  excellent  reading  and 
speaking  ;  which  admiration  is  itself  a  proof  that  it 
is  not  deserved  :  for  when  the  delivery  is  really 
good,  the  hearers  (except  any  one  who  may  delibe- 
rately set  himself  to  observe  and  criticise)  never 
think  about  it,  but  are  exclusively  occupied  with 
the  sense  it  conveys,  and  the  feelings  it  excites. 

"  He  who  reads  in  an  artificial  manner,  makes  a 
kind  of  running  comment  on  all  that  is  uttered, 
which  says,  ^  I  do  not  mean,  think,  or  feel  all  this ; 
I  only  mean  to  recite  it  with  propriety  and  deco- 
rum.' But  he  who  has  the  energetic  manner  of 
true  natural  speech,  means,  thinks,  and  feels  all  he 
says ;  and  recites  it  with  propriety  and  decorum  in- 
deed, but  not  so  as  to  make  these  take  the  least  of 
the  attention. 

"  But  the  natural,  colloquial  style  of  delivery, 
should  not  be  confounded  with  the  negligent  or  the 
familiar.  The  natural  style  is  one  that  is  suited  to 
the  sense,  the  subject,  the  place,  and  the  occasion; 
and  this  adaptation  requires  much  intelligence,  and 
a  high  sense  of  propriety.  Thus,  it  will  be  seen, 
that  there  is  considerable  labour  necessary  in  attain- 
ing the  natural  style  of  delivery.  If  we  follow  na- 
ture, there  is  no  opportunity  for  imitation ;  a  true 
conception  of  the  subject  and  the  occasion  is  the 
only  thing  that  can  direct  us. 

"  But  in  all  preparatory  schools,  where  boys  learn 
to  speak,  the  whole  attention  of  the  orator  and  the 
instructer  is  given  to  the  manner.  The  subject  for 
recitation  is  one  which  neither  interests  the  speaker 
nor  the  hearer,  and  the  attention  is  given  exclu- 
sively to  the  mode  of  delivery.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  such  exercises,  while  the  manners  and  habits 
are  forming  and  becoming  fixed,  the  scholar  must 
acquire  an  unnatural,  inejficient  style  of  reading  and 
speaking." 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  219 

There  is  not  one  public  speaker  out  of  five  hun- 
dred who  does  not  labour  under  the  unhappy  influ- 
ence of  this  early  artificial  training.  By  the  time 
scholars  have  passed  through  their  preparatory 
schools  they  have  acquired  such  an  unnatural  de- 
livery that  the  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  college 
and  professional  seminary  can  do  nothing  more  for 
the  student  than  correct  some  of  his  bad  habits.  If 
the  student  ever  makes  an  impressive  speaker  or 
reader,  he  must  unlearn  all  he  ever  learned  of  elo- 
cution while  attending  to  his  preparatory  studies. 
But  unfortunately,  only  a  very  few  are  able  to 
throw  off  these  bad  habits,  and  the  feeble,  artificial, 
affected  delivery  which  they  acquired  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  remains  with  the  most  of  them  for 
life. 

But  it  will  be  asked,  Would  you  abolish  all  kinds 
of  public  speaking  and  reading  in  primary  and  pre- 
paratory schools  ?  Would  you  have  no  exercises 
in  these  schools,  either  in  debate,  dialogue,  or  de- 
clamation ?  Would  you  have  our  teachers  give  no 
instruction  whatever  in  elocution  ?  Our  answer  to 
these  questions  is,  that  we  believe  there  are  no 
qualifications  or  accomplishments  more  useful  or 
ornamental  than  good  reading  and  speaking  ;  and 
that  they  deserve  attention  from  the  scholar  and  the 
teacher  in  proportion  to  their  high  value.  We  think 
it  the  duty  of  every  elementary  teacher  to  use  every 
means  in  his  power  to  make  every  American  youth 
who  may  attend  his  instructions  a  good  reader  and 
a  good  speaker. 

But  we  must  beg  leave  to  dissent  again  from  the 
method  and  systems  now  made  use  of  to  accomplish 
this  desirable  end.  We  say,  let  there  be  none  of 
the  machinery  of  art  about  it;  let  nature  be  the 
teacher — let  nature,  ever  ready  and  ever  able,  sug- 
gest the  manner,  and  let  not  this  be  shaped  and 
fashioned  by  art.     If  the  school-boy  has  disagree- 


220  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

able  habits  or  ludicrous  tricks  when  speaking  or 
reading,  let  them  be  corrected  ;  but,  commencing 
with  the  boys  before  they  have  formed  any  decided 
manner  whatever,  we  would  respectfully  recom- 
mend teachers  to  make  use  of  such  means  as  will 
now  be  described. 

When  children  repeat  the  alphabet,  and  begin  to 
spell  easy  words,  the  teacher  should  be  careful  that 
they  preserve  the  common  colloquial  tones  of  voice. 
In  making  their  first  recitations,  they  are  apt  to 
raise  the  voice  to  the  highest  pitch,  or  to  sink  it  to 
an  inaudible  whisper.  The  conversational  tone  is 
seldom  employed.  It  is  while  learning  to  spell  that 
children  first  learn  to  read  and  speak  unnaturally. 
As  soon  as  a  book  is  put  into  their  hands,  they  think 
it  necessary  (from  their  bad  practice  with  the  teach- 
er) either  to  raise  or  sink  the  voice. 

It  is  at  this  stage  of  their  studies  that  children 
begin  to  acquire  the  habit  of  articulating  indistinctly; 
of  precipitating  syllable  after  syllable,  and  of  putting 
all  the  letters  of  the  word  into  confusion.  Now 
they  begin  to  drawl  or  trail  the  letters,  to  abridge 
or  prolong  the  syllables ;  and  to  pitch  the  voice  on 
an  unnatural  key.  If  teachers  are  not  attentive  to 
children  when  they  first  begin  to  read,  habits  will 
be  formed  which  will  be  corrected  with  great  diffi- 
culty, or  remain  with  the  pupil  through  life.  I 
would  request  those  who  have  not  observed  the 
fact,  to  mark  the  unnatural  manner  in  which  almost 
all  young  children  read.  Let  teachers,  then,  be 
careful  that  their  pupils  learn  to  spell  and  read  in 
an  easy,  natural  manner. 

Another  cause  of  bad  reading  is,  teachers  permit 
their  scholars  to  read  what  they  do  not  understand. 
The  style  or  the  subject  of  the  reading  lessons, 
which  children  are  made  to  practise  on,  is  usually 
such  that  no  interest  is  felt  in  what  is  said ;  and  the 
child  receives  little  or  no  meaning  from  the  words 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  221 

he  Is  compelled  to  pronounce.  This  makes  the  ex- 
ercise a  mere  mechanical  employment.  The  scho- 
lar obtains  no  information  from  Ihe  book,  and  hence 
never  supposes  it  necessary  to  communicate  any 
thing  to  his  hearers. 

If  the  pupil  only  pronounces  the  words  with  ease 
and  rapidity,  he  gives  the  utmost  satisfaction  to  him- 
self and  his  teacher;  the  sentiment  he  never  thinks 
of.  The  practice  of  pronouncing  words,  for  months 
and  years  together,  without  affixing  to  them  any 
meaning  whatever,  produces  the  very  worst  habit 
which  children  can  possibly  acquire.  The  words 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  deliver  them,  are  all 
the  children  ever  have  attended  to,  and,  in  all  pro- 
bability, all  they  ever  will  attend  to.  Reading  in 
this  manner,  during  their  early  years,  contributes 
greatly  towards  forming  that  monotonous,  mechani- 
cal delivery  which  is  so  prevalent  both  in  public 
and  in  private. 

To  prevent  this  exclusive  attention  to  the  words 
and  manner  only,  the  teacher  should  never  suffer 
his  scholars  to  read  what  they  do  not  understand. 
He  should  convince  his  scholars,  that  the  object  of 
reading  is  to  perceive  the  sentiment  of  the  author, 
and  to  convey  it  clearly  and  forcibly  to  his  hearers. 
He  should  labour  to  make  his  scholars  become  ab- 
sorbed with  the  views,  feelings,  and  sentiments  of 
the  writer ;  and  to  icithdraiv  their  attention  wholly 
from  themselves  and  their  audience.  If  teachers  do 
this,  they  will  cure  one  great  cause  of  so  much  dis- 
graceful, offensive  reading  and  speaking. 

Again,  school-boys  select  pieces  for  declamation 
in  which  they  can  feel  no  interest,  and  which  have 
no  interest  or  relation  to  the  audience  that  is  ad- 
dressed. This  ruinous  practice  the  child  com- 
mences when  it  first  goes  to  school,  and  continues 
it  till  the  education  is  finished,  whether  at  an  ele- 
mentary school  or  at  a  professional  college.  Con- 
T  2 


222  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

tinued  exercises  like  these  will  make  any  one  in- 
sensible and  unnatural  in  their  delivery  ;  the  effect, 
wherever  the  experiment  has  been  made,  has  not 
been  otherwise,  nor  can  it,  from  the  very  nature  of 
the  exercise,  be  any  thing  else. 

Teachers,  then,  should  not  allow  their  scholars  to 
speak  any  thing  of  which  they  do  not  form  a  right 
conception,  and  in  which  they  do  not  feel  a  lively 
interest.  The  subjects  for  declamation  in  schools 
should  be  those  in  which  the  speaker  and  the  audi- 
ence are  deeply  concerned.  Such  subjects  and  oc- 
casions can  always  be  furnished  by  an  ingenious 
teacher. 

The  school  is  a  little  world  of  fears  and  desires, 
of  passions  and  interests,  of  ambition  and  dominion  ; 
and  the  teacher  may  take  advantage  of  these  con- 
flicting emotions,  and  secure  the  most  absorbing 
interest  in  the  debates  and  addresses  of  his  pupils. 
For  instance,  the  scholars  request  a  holyday ;  the 
teacher  says  that  he  is  willing  to  gratify  them,  if 
they  can  convince  him  that  it  is  right  to  do  so. 
The  scholars,  now,  are  allowed  to  express  their 
feelings,  and  present  the  claims  of  their  petition. 

The  teacher  hears  them  with  attention,  and  replies 
to  their  arguments  with  fairness  and  respect.  The 
scholars  become  deeply  engaged  in  showing  the 
reasonableness  of  their  request.  The  teacher  sees 
that  decorum  is  preserved,  and  that  each  one  has  a 
fair  chance  in  advocating  the  general  cause.  After 
the  debate  has  continued  a  reasonable  time,  the 
teacher  makes  the  decision  according  to  the  merits 
of  the  case.  This  is  one  among  the  many  occur- 
rences which  daily  offer  themselves  for  giving  a  real 
occasion  and  a  real  iiiterest  to  the  debates  and  ad- 
dresses of  schoolboys.  An  ingenious  teacher  will 
always  secure  similar  opportunities  for  rhetorical 
exercises  in  school. 

If  all   teachers  would  do  this,  and   see  that  the 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  223 

scholars  preserve  a  natural,  colloquial  tone  of  voice 
when  they  read  and  speak,  and  not  allow  them  to 
read  any  thing  but  what  they  understand,  there 
would  be  much  more  natural  speech  among  scho- 
lars and  public  speakers.  And  this  is  the  system 
of  rhetoric  which  we  would  recommend  teachers  to 
adopt. 

"And  though  the  teacher  will  not  attain  perfec- 
tion at  once,  yet  he  may  be  assured  that  while  he 
steadily  adheres  to  this  j)lan^  he  is  in  the  right  road 
to  it ;  instead  of  becoming,  as  in  the  other  plan,  more 
and  more  artificial  the  longer  he  studies.  And  every 
advance  he  makes  will  produce  a  proportionate  effect; 
it  will  give  him  more  and  more  of  that  hold  on  the 
attention,  the  understanding,  and  the  feelings  of 
the  audience  which  no  measured  cadence  and  studied 
modulation  can  ever  attain.  As  the  perverted  taste 
now  is,  others  may  be  more  fortunate  in  escaping 
censure  and  ensuring  admiration ;  but  the  natural 
reader  or  speaker  will  far  more  surpass  them,  in 
respect  of  the  proper  object  of  the  orator,  which  is, 
to  carry  his  point. ^^ 


SECTION  XXIII. 

RELIGIOUS    INSTRUCTION    IN    COMMON    SCHOOLS. 

I  AM  SO  well  pleased  with  what  Mr.  J.  Abbot  has 
said,  in  his  "Teacher,"  on  religious  instruction  in 
schools,  that  I  have  thought  it  advisable  to  make 
some  extracts  from  that  valuable  work.  I  shall  also 
present  some  of  M.  Cousin's  reflections  on  this  im- 
portant subject.  He  says,  page  259  of  the  American 
edition,  "We  have  abundant  proof  that  the  well- 


224  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

being  of  an  individual,  like  that  of  a  people,  is  no- 
wise secured  by  extraordinary  intellectual  powers  or 
very  refined  civilization.  The  true  happiness  of  an 
individual,  as  of  a  people,  is  founded  on  strict  mo- 
rality, self-government,  humility,  and  moderation  ; 
on  the  willing  performance  of  all  duties  to  God,  his 
superiors,  and  his  neighbours. 

"  A  religious  and  moral  education  is  consequently 
the  first  want  of  a  people.  Without  this,  every  other 
education  is  not  only  without  real  utility,  but  in 
some  respects  dangerous.  If,  on  the  contrary,  reli- 
gious education  has  taken  firm  root,  intellectual  edu- 
cation will  have  complete  success,  and  ought  on  no 
account  to  be  withheld  from  the  people,  since  God 
has  endowed  them  with  all  the  faculties  for  acquir- 
ing it,  and  since  the  cultivation  of  all  the  powers  of 
man  secures  to  him  the  means  of  reaching  perfection, 
and,  through  that,  supreme  happiness. 

"Religious  and  moral  instruction,  far  from  leading 
to  presumption  and  a  disputatious  spirit,  on  the  con- 
trary, produces  in  man  a  consciousness  of  his  weak- 
ness, and,  as  a  consequence,  humility.  The  object 
then  should  be,  to  give  the  people  solid  and  practical 
knowledge,  suited  to  their  wants,  which  will  natu- 
rally refine  and  soften  their  habits  and  manners. 

"If  such  be  the  instruction  the  people  ought  to 
receive,  that  of  the  masters  of  the  primary  schools  is 
at  once  determined,  and  the  principles  to  be  followed 
in  the  instruction  of  our  pupils  are  equally  clear. 

"A  more  definite  direction  is  given  to  religious  and 
moral  instruction  by  the  belief  in  the  revealed  word 
of  God  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  But  this  belief  must 
not  be  simply  historical,  as  amongst  the  learned  ;  nor 
amuse  itself  with  obscure  and  mystical  notions ;  nor 
be  expressed  with  affectation,  in  word,  gesture,  or 
deed.  It  ought  rather  so  to  penetrate  the  heart  of 
man  as  to  produce  a  constant  endeavour  to  have  his 
thoughts,  sentiments,  and  actions    in  strictest  bar- 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  225 

mony  with  the  word  of  God.  It  is,  then,  on  the 
living  conviction  of  the  truths  and  doctrines  of 
Christianity,  that  we  base  the  religious  and  moral 
character  of  our  pupils.  Without  neglecting  phy- 
sical science,  and  the  knowledge  applicable  to  the 
arts  of  life,  we  must  make  moral  science,  which  is 
of  far  higher  importance,  our  main  object.  The 
mind  and  the  character  are  what  a  true  master 
ought,  above  all,  to  fashion.  We  must  lay  the 
foundations  of  moral  life  in  the  souls  of  our  young 
masters,  and  therefore  we  must  place  religious  in- 
struction,— that  is,  to  speak  distinctly.  Christian 
instruction, — in  the  first  rank  in  the  education  of 
our  normal  schools.  We  must  teach  our  children 
that  religion  which  civilized  our  fathers;  that  religion 
whose  liberal  spirit  prepared,  and  can  alone  sustain, 
all  the  great  institutions  of  modern  times.  We  must 
also  permit  the  clergy  to  fulfil  their  first  duty, — the 
superintendence  of  religious  instruction.  But  in 
order  to  stand  the  test  of  this  superintendence  with 
honour,  the  schoolmaster  must  be  enabled  to  give 
adequate  religious  instruction  ;  otherwise,  parents,  in 
order  to  be  sure  that  their  children  receive  a  good 
religious  education,  will  require  us  to  appoint  eccle- 
siastics as  schoolmasters,  which,  though  assuredly 
better  than  having  irreligious  schoolmasters,  would 
be  liable  to  very  serious  objections  of  various  kinds. 
"The  less  we  desire  our  schools  to  be  ecclesiastical, 
the  more  ought  they  to  be  Christian.  It  necessarily 
follows,  that  there  must  be  a  course  of  special  reli- 
gious instruction  in  our  normal  schools.  Religion 
is,  in  my  eyes,  the  best — perhaps  the  only — basis  of 
popular  education.  I  know  something  of  Europe, 
and  never  have  I  seen  good  schools  where  the  spirit 
of  Christian  charity  was  wanting.  Primary  instruc- 
tion flourishes  in  three  countries,  Holland,  Scotland, 
and  Germany ;  in  all  it  is  profoundly  religious.  It 
is  said  to  be  so  in  America. 


226  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

"The  little  popular  instruction  I  ever  found  in 
Italy  came  from  the  priests.  In  France,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, our  best  schools  for  the  poor  are  those  of  the 
Freres  de  la  doctrine  ChrUienne,  (Brothers  of  the 
Christian  doctrine.)  These  are  facts  which  it  is 
necessary  to  be  incessantly  repeating  to  certain  per- 
sons. Let  them  go  into  the  schools  of  the  poor, — 
let  them  learn  what  patience,  what  resignation,  are 
required  to  induce  a  man  to  persevere  in  so  toilsome 
an  employment.  Have  better  nurses  ever  been 
found  than  those  benevolent  nuns  who  bestow  on 
poverty  all  those  attentions  we  pay  to  wealth? 
There  are  things  in  human  society,  sir,  which  can 
neither  be  conceived  nor  accomplished  without  vir- 
tue,— that  is  to  say,  when  speaking  of  the  mass  with- 
out religion. 

"The  schools  for  the  middle  classes  may  be  an 
object  of  speculation ;  but  the  country  schools,  the 
miserable  little  schools  in  the  south,  in  the  west,  in 
Britanny,  in  the  mountains  of  Auvergne,  and,  with- 
out going  far,  the  lowest  schools  of  our  great  cities, 
of  Paris  itself,  will  never  hold  out  any  adequate  in- 
ducement to  persons  seeking  a  remunerating  occu- 
pation. There  will  doubtless  be  some  philosophers 
inspired  with  the  ardent  philanthropy  of  Saint 
Vincent  de  Paul,  without  his  religious  enthusiasm, 
who  would  devote  themselves  to  this  austere  voca- 
tion ;  but  the  question  is  not  to  have  here  and  there 
a  master. 

"We  have  more  than  forty  thousand  schools  to 
serve,  and  it  were  wise  to  call  religion  to  the  aid  of 
our  insufficient  means,  were  it  but  for  the  alleviation 
of  the  pecuniary  burdens  of  the  nation.  Either 
you  must  lavish  the  treasures  of  the  state,  and  the 
revenues  of  the  communes,  in  order  to  give  high 
salaries,  and  even  pensions,  to  that  new  order  of 
tradesmen  called  schoolmasters  ;  or  you  must  not 
imagine  you  can  do  without  Christian  charity,  and 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  227 

that  spirit  of  poverty,  humility,  courageous  resigna- 
tion, and  modest  dignity,  which  Christianity,  rightly 
understood  and  wisely  taught,  can  alone  give  to  the 
teachers  of  the  people. 

"The  more  I  think  of  all  this,  sir,  the  more  I  look 
at  the  schools  in  this  country,  the  more  I  talk  with 
the  directors  of  normal  schools  and  counsellors  of 
the  ministry,  the  more  I  am  strengthened  in  the 
conviction  that  we  must  make  any  efforts  or  any 
sacrifices  to  come  to  a  good  understanding  with  the 
clergy  on  the  subject  of  popular  education,  and  to 
constitute  religion  a  special  and  very  carefully-taught 
branch  of  instruction  in  our  primary  normal  schools. 

"I  am  not  ignorant,  sir,  that  this  advice  will  grate 
on  the  ears  of  many  persons,  and  that  I  shall  be 
thought  extremely  devot  at  Paris.  Yet  it  is  not 
from  Rome,  but  from  Berlin,  that  I  address  you. 
The  man  who  holds  this  language  to  you  is  a  philo- 
sopher, formerly  disliked,  and  even  persecuted,  by 
the  priesthood;  but  this  philosopher  has  a  mind  too 
little  affected  by  the  recollection  of  his  own  insults, 
and  is  too  well  acquainted  with  human  nature  and 
with  history,  not  to  regard  religion  as  an  indestruc- 
tible power:  genuine  Christianity,  as  a  means  of 
civilization  for  the  people,  and  a  necessary  support 
for  those  on  whom  society  imposes  irksome  and 
humble  duties,  without  the  slightest  prospect  of  for- 
tune, w^ithout  the  least  gratification  of  self-love." 

"No  more  tlian  grapes  can  be  gathered  from  thorns, 
or  figs  from  thistles,  can  any  thing  good  be  hoped 
from  schoolmasters  who  are  regardless  of  religion 
and  of  morality.  For  this  reason  religious  instruc- 
tion is  placed  at  the  head  of  all  other  parts  of  educa- 
tion :  its  object  is  to  implant  in  the  normal  schools 
such  a  moral  and  religious  spirit  as  ought  to  pervade 
the  popular  schools.  The  course  of  religious  in- 
struction has  undergone  no  change  from  tliat  stated 
in  the  report  of  last  year,  except  that  the  several 


228  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

classes  have  been  united  for  the  Biblical  part. 
During  the  present  year  we  propose  to  treat  the 
concordance  of  the  Gospels,  the  history  of  the 
Apostles,  and  some  of  the  Epistles. 

"  The  course  adopted  is  this : — The  series  of  the 
concordance  is  established  and  dictated*  by  the  mas- 
ter ;  the  passages  and  discourses  are  explained,  and, 
if  thought  expedient,  learnt  by  heart  by  the  pupils. 
For  the  catechising,  or  religious  and  moral  instruc- 
tion, properly  so  called,  the  classes  are  separated. 
The  great  catechism  of  Overberg  is  taken  as  a  ground 
work  ;  and  we  treat  first  of  faith,  then  of  morals,  so 
that  the  latter  may  be  intimately  connected  with  the 
former,  or  to  speak  better,  that  morality  may  flow 
from  faith  as  from  its  source. 

"  I  regard  religion  as  a  disposition  or  affection  of 
the  soul,  which  unites  man,  in  all  his  actions,  with 
God  ;  and  he  alone  is  truly  religious  who  possesses 
this  disposition  and  strives  by  every  means  to  cherish 
it.  In  this  view  of  the  subject  all  morality  is  reli- 
gious, because  it  raises  man  to  God,  and  teaches  him 
to  live  in  God. 

"  I  must  confess,  that  in  religious  instruction  I  do 
not  confine  myself  to  any  particular  method ;  I  try 
by  meditation  to  bring  the  thing  clearly  before  my 
own  mind,  and  then  to  expound  it  intelligibly,  in 
fitting  language,  with  gravity  and  calmness,  with 
unction  and  earnestness,  because  I  am  convinced 
that  a  clear  exposition  obliges  the  pupils  to  meditate, 
and  excites  interest  and  animation.  Christianity 
ought  to  be  the  basis  of  the  instruction  of  the  people; 
we  must  not  flinch  from  the  open  profession  of  this 
maxim ;  it  is  no  less  politic  than  it  is  honest.  We 
baptize  our  children,  and  bring  them  up  in  the 
Christian  faith  and  in  the  bosom  of  the  church ;  in 

*  The  Professors  of  German  Universities  used  to  pronounce 
their  lectures  very  slowly,  in  order  that  the  pupils  might  write 
notes.    This  dictation  is  now  nearly  discontinued. — Transl. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 


220 


after-life,  age,  reflection,  the  breath  of  human  opini- 
ons, modify  their  early  impressions,  but  it  is  good 
that  these  impressions  should  have  been  made  by 
Christianity.  Popular  education  ought  therefore 
to  be  religious,  that  is  to  say,  Cliristian  ;  for,  I  repeat 
it,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  religion  in  general ;  in 
Europe,  and  in  our  days,  religion  means  Christianity. 
Let  our  popular  schools  then  be  Christian  ;  let  them 
be  so  entirely  and  earnestly. 

"Difference  of  religion  in  Christian  schools  neces- 
sarily produces  some  differences  in  the  religious  in- 
struction. This  instruction  shall  always  be  adapted 
to  the  spirit  and  the  dogmas  of  the  church  to  which 
the  school  belongs.  But  as,  in  every  school  of  a 
Christian  state,  the  dominant  spirit,  common  to  all 
modes  of  faith,  ought  to  be  piety  and  a  profound 
reverence  for  God,  every  school  may  receive  chil- 
dren of  another  communion. 

"Masters  and  inspectors  must  most  carefully  avoid 
every  kind  of  constraint  or  annoyance  to  the  chil- 
dren on  account  of  their  particular  creed.  No  school 
shall  be  made  abusively  instrumental  to  any  views 
of  proselytism ;  and  the  children  of  a  persuasion 
different  from  that  of  the  school  shall  not  be  obliged, 
against  the  will  of  their  parents,  or  their  own,  to 
attend  the  religious  instruction  or  exercises  in  it. 

"Private  masters  of  their  own  creed  shall  be  charg- 
ed w^th  their  religious  instruction ;  and  in  any  place 
where  it  would  be  impossible  to  have  as  many  masters 
as  there  are  forms  of  belief,  parents  must  the  more 
sedulously  perform  those  duties  themselves,  if  they 
do  not  wish  their  children  to  follow  the  religious  in- 
structions given  in  the  school.'' — Cousin'* sllej) or t. 

Says  Mr.  J.  Abbot,  on  this  point, — "  The  teacher 
is  employed  for  a  sjjecijic  pu7yose,  and  he  has  no 
right  to  wander  from  that  purpose,  except  as  far 
as  he  can  go  with  the  common  consent  of  his  em- 
ployers. 

U 


230  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

"  Now  the  common  ground,  on  religious  subjects, 
is  very  broad.  There  are,  indeed,  many  principles 
which  are,  in  my  view,  essential  parts  of  Christianity, 
which  are  subjects  of  active  discussion  among  us  ; 
but,  setting  these  aside,  there  are  other  principles 
equally  essential,  in  regard  to  which  the  whole  com- 
munity are  agreed  ;  or,  if  at  least  there  is  a  dissent- 
ing minority,  it  is  so  small  that  it  is  hardly  to  be 
considered.     Let  us  look  at  some  of  these  principles. 

"  1.  Our  community  is  agreed  that  there  is  a  God. 
There  is  probably  not  a  school  in  our  country  where 
the  parents  of  the  scholars  would  not  wish  to  have 
the  teacher,  in  his  conversation  with  his  pupils,  take 
this  for  granted,  and  allude  reverently  and  judi- 
ciously to  that  great  Being,  with  the  design  of  lead- 
ing them  to  realize  his  existence  and  to  feel  his 
authority. 

"2.  Our  community  are  agreed  that  2^e  are  re- 
sponsible to  God  for  all  our  conduct.  Though 
some  persons  absurdly  pretend  to  believe  that  the 
Being  who  formed  this  world,  if  indeed  they  think 
there  is  any  such  Being,  has  left  it  and  its  inhabit- 
ants to  themselves,  not  inspecting  their  conduct,  and 
never  intending  to  call  them  to  an  account;  these 
are  too  few  among  us  to  need  consideration.  A  dif- 
ference of  opinion  on  this  subject  might  embarrass 
the  teacher  in  France,  and  in  other  countries  in 
Europe,  but  not  here. 

"  However  negligent  men  may  be  in  obeying 
God's  commands,  they  do  almost  universally,  in  our 
country,  admit  in  theory  the  authority  from  which 
they  come;  and  believing  this,  the  parent,  even  if  he 
is  aware  that  he  himself  does  not  obey  these  com- 
mands, chooses  to  have  his  children  taught  to  respect 
them.  The  teacher  will  thus  be  acting  with  the  con- 
sent of  his  employers  in  almost  any  part  of  our  coun- 
try, in  endeavouring  to  influence  his  pupils  to  per- 
form moral  duties,  not  merely  from  worldly  motives, 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  231 

nor  from  mere  abstract  principles  of  right  and  wrong, 
hut  from  regard  to  the  authority  of  God. 

"3.  The  community  are  agreed,  too,  in  the  belief 
of  the  hnmortatity  of  the  soul.  They  believe, 
almost  without  exception,  that  there  is  a  future  state 
of  being,  to  which  this  is  introductory  and  prepara- 
tory, and  almost  every  father  and  mother  in  our 
country  wish  their  children  to  keep  this  in  mind, 
and  to  be  influenced  by  it  in  all  their  conduct. 

"  4.  The  community  are  agreed  that  ive  have  a 
revelation  from  heaven.  I  believe  there  are  very 
few  instances  where  the  parents  would  not  be  glad 
to  have  the  Bible  read  from  time  to  time,  its  geo- 
graphical and  historical  meanings  illustrated,  and 
its  moral  lessons  brought  to  bear  upon  the  hearts 
and  lives  of  their  children. 

"Of  course,  if  the  teacher  is  so  unwise  as  to  make 
such  a  privilege,  if  it  were  allowed  him,  the  occa- 
sion of  exerting  an  influence  upon  one  side  or  the 
other  of  some  question  which  divides  the  community 
around  him,  he  must  expect  to  excite  jealousy  and 
distrust,  and  to  be  excluded  from  a  privilege  which 
he  might  otherwise  have  been  permitted  freely  to 
enjoy.  There  may,  alas  !  be  some  cases  where  the 
use  of  the  Scriptures  is  altogether  forbidden  in 
school ;  but  probably  in  almost  every  such  case,  it 
would  be  found  that  it  was  from  fear  of  its  perver- 
sion to  sectarian  or  party  purposes,  and  not  to  any 
unwillingness  to  have  the  Bible  used  in  the  way  I 
have  described. 

"  5.  The  community  are  agreed  in  theory  that 
personal  attachment  to  the  Supreme  Being  is  the 
duty  of  every  human  soul ;  and  every  parent,  with 
exceptions  so  few  that  they  are  not  worth  naming, 
wishes  that  his  children  should  cherish  that  afiec- 
tion,  and  yield  their  hearts  to  its  influence.  He  is 
willing,  therefore,  that  the  teacher,  of  course  with- 
out interfering  with  the  regular  duties  for  the  per- 


232  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

formance  of  which  he  holds  his  office,  should,  from 
time  to  time,  speak  of  this  duty — of  God's  goodness 
to  men,  of  his  daily  protection,  his  promised  favours, 
— as  to  awaken,  if  possible,  this  attachment  in  the 
hearts  of  his  children. 

"  Of  course,  it  is  very  easy  for  the  teacher,  if  he  is 
so  disposed,  to  abuse  this  privilege  also.  He  can, 
under  pretence  of  awakening  and  cherishing  the 
spirit  of  piety  in  the  hearts  of  his  pupils,  present 
the  subjects  in  such  aspects  and  relations  as  to  arouse 
the  sectarian  or  denominational  feelings  of  some  of 
his  employers.  But  I  believe,  if  this  was  honestly 
and  fully  avoided,  there  are  few,  if  any,  parents  in 
our  country  who  would  not  be  gratified  to  have  the 
great  principle  of  love  to  God  manifest  itself  in  the 
instructions  of  the  school-room,  and  showing  itself 
by  its  genuine  indications  in  the  hearts  and  conduct 
of  their  children. 

"  6.  The  community  are  agreed,  not  only  in  be- 
lieving that  piety  consists  primarily  in  love  to  God, 
but  that  the  life  of  piety  is  to  be  commenced  by 
penitence  for  past  sins,  and  forgiveness,  in  some 
way  or  other,  through  a  Saviour.  I  am  aware 
that  one  class  of  theological  writers,  in  the  heat  of 
controversy,  charge  the  other,  that  Jesus  Christ  was 
nothing  more  or  less  than  a  teacher  of  religion,  and 
there  are,  unquestionably,  individuals  who  take  this 
view. 

"  But  these  individuals  are  few.  There  are  very 
few  in  our  community  who  do  not,  in  some  sense, 
look  upon  Jesus  Christ  as  our  Saviour, — our  Re- 
deemer ;  who  do  not  feel  themselves  in  some  way 
indebted  to  him,  for  the  offer  of  pardon.  There 
may  be,  here  and  there,  a  theological  student,  or  a 
contributor  to  the  columns  of  a  polemical  magazine, 
who  ranks  Jesus  Christ  with  Moses  and  with  Paul. 
But  the  great  mass  of  the  fathers  and  mothers  of 
every  name  and  denomination,  through  all  the  ranks 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  233 

of  society,  look  up  to  the  Saviour  of  sinners  with 
something,  at  least,  of  the  feeling  that  he  is  the  oh- 
jeet  of  extraordinary  affection  and  reverence.  I  am 
aware,  however,  that  I  am  approaching  the  limit, 
which,  in  many  parts  of  our  country,  ought  to  bound 
the  religious  influence  of  the  teacher  in  a  public 
school ;  and  on  this  subject,  as  on  every  other,  he 
ought  to  do  nothing,  directly  or  indirectly,  which 
would  be  displeasing  to  those  who' have  intrusted 
children  to  his  care. 

"  So  much  ground,  it  seems,  the  teacher  may 
occupy,  by  common  consent,  in  New  England,  and 
it  certainly  is  a  great  deal.  It  may  be  doubted 
whether,  after  all  our  disputes,  there  is  a  country 
in  the  world  wiiose  inhabitants  have  so  much  in 
common  in  regard  to  religious  belief.  There  is, 
perhaps,  no  country  in  the  world  where  the  teacher 
may  be  allowed  to  do  so  much  towards  leading 
his  pupils  to  fear  God,  and  to  obey  his  commands, 
with  the  cordial  consent  of  their  parents,  as  he  can 
here. 

"  The  ground  which  I  have  been  laying  out  is 
common  all  over  our  country  ;  in  particular  places 
there  will  be  even  much  more  that  is  common ;  of 
course  the  teacher,  in  such  cases,  will  be  at  much 
greater  liberty.  If  a  Roman  Catholic  community 
establish  a  school,  and  appoint  a  Roman  Catholic 
teacher,  he  may  properly,  in  his  intercourse  with 
his  scholars,  allude,  with  commendation,  to  the 
opinions  and  practices  of  that  church.  If  a  college 
Is  established  by  a  Methodist  denomination,  the 
teacher  of  that  institution  may,  of  course,  explain 
and  enforce  there,  the  views  of  that  society.  Each 
teacher  is  confined  only  to  those  vieius  which  is 
common  to  the  founders  and  siij)porters  of  the 
particular  institution  to  which  he  is  attached. 

"  I  trust  the  principle  which  I  have  been  attempt- 
ing to  enforce  is  fully  before  the  reader's  mind, 
u  2 


234  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

namely,  that  moral  and  religious  instruction  in  a 
school  being  in  a  great  degree  extra-official  in  its 
nature,  must  he  carried  no  farther  than  the  teacher 
can  go  with  the  common  consent,  either  expressed 
or  implied,  of  those  who  have  founded  and  who 
support  his  school.  Of  course,  if  those  founders 
forbid  it  altogether,  they  have  a  right  to  do  so,  and 
the  teacher  must  submit. 

"The  only  question  that  can  justly  arise  is,  whether 
he  will  remain  in  such  a  situation,  or  seek  employ- 
ment where  a  door  of  usefulness,  here  closed  against 
him,  will  be  opened.  While  he  remains,  he  must 
fully  and  honestly  submit  to  the  wishes  of  those  in 
whose  hands  Providence  has  placed  the  ultimate  re- 
sponsibility of  training  up  the  children  of  his  school. 
It  is  only  for  a  partial  and  specific  purpose  that  they 
are  placed  under  his  care. 

"  The  religious  reader  may  inquire  why  I  am  so 
anxious  to  restrain,  rather  than  to  urge  on,  the  exer- 
cise of  religious  influence  in  schools.  *  There  is  far 
too  little,'  some  one  will  say,  '  instead  of  too  much  ; 
and  teachers  need  to  be  encouraged  and  led  on  in 
this  duty,  not  to  be  restrained  from  it.'  There  is, 
indeed,  far  too  little  religious  influence  exerted  in 
common  schools.  What  I  have  said  has  been  in- 
tended to  prepare  a  way  for  an  increase  of  it.  My 
view  of  it  is  this  : 

"  If  teachers  do  universally  confine  themselves  to 
limits  which  I  have  been  attempting  to  define,  they 
may  accomplish,  within  these  limits,  a  vast  amount 
of  good.  By  attempting,  however,  to  exceed  them, 
the  confidence  of  parents  is  destroyed  or  weakened, 
and  the  door  closed.  In  this  way,  injury  to  a  very 
great  extent  has  been,  in  many  parts  of  our  country, 
done.  Parents  are  led  to  associate  with  the  very 
idea  of  religion,  indirect,  and  perhaps  secret,  efforts 
to  influence  their  children  in  a  way  which  they 
themselves  would  disapprove. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  235 

'^  They  transfer  to  the  cause  of  piety  itself,  the 
dislike  which  was  first  awakened  by  exceptionable 
means  to  promote  it;  and  other  teachers,  seeing 
these  evil  effects,  are  deterred  from  attempting  what 
they  might  easily  and  pleasantly  accomplish.  Be- 
fore, therefore,  attempting  to  enforce  the  duty,  and 
explain  the  methods  of  exerting  religious  influence 
in  school,  I  thought  proper  distinctly  to  state  with 
what  restrictions,  and  within  what  limits,  the  work 
is  to  be  done. 

"  There  are  many  teachers  who  profess  to  cherish 
the  spirit,  and  to  entertain  the  hopes  of  piety,  who 
yet  make  no  effort  whatever  to  extend  its  influence 
to  the  hearts  of  their  pupils.  Others  appeal  some- 
times to  religious  truth,  merely  to  assist  them  in  the 
government  of  the  school.  They  perhaps  bring  it 
before  the  minds  of  disobedient  pupils  in  a  vain 
effort  to  make  an  impression  upon  the  conscience 
of  one  who  has  done  wrong,  and  who  cannot  by 
other  means  be  brought  to  submission.  But  the 
pupil  in  such  cases  understands,  or,  at  least,  he  be- 
lieves that  the  teacher  applies  to  religious  truth  only 
to  eke  out  his  own  authority,  and,  of  course,  it  pro- 
duces no  effect. 

"Another  teacher  thinks  he  must,  to  discharge  his 
duty,  give  a  certain  amount  weekly,  of  what  he  con- 
siders religious  instruction.  He  accordingly  appro- 
priates a  regular  portion  of  time  to  a  formal  lecture 
or  exhortation,  which  he  delivers  without  regard  to 
the  mental  habits  of  thought  and  feeling  which  pre- 
vail among  his  charge.  He  forgets  that  the  heart 
must  be  led,  not  driven  to  piety,  and  that  unless  his 
efforts  are  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  minds  he  is 
acting  upon,  and  suited  to  influence  them,  he  must 
as  certainly  fail  of  success  as  when  there  is  a  want 
of  adaptedness  between  the  means  and  the  end  in 
any  other  undertaking  whatever." 


PART    II. 


SECTION  I. 


EVILS    FROM    IGNORANCE. 

PopuLAH  ignorance  is  an  enormous  national  evil.  The  igno- 
rance, almost  total,  of  seven-eighths  of  the  British  people,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  deep  reproach  with  which  it  covers  us,  is  full  of  dan- 
ger to  our  social  system,  and  even  affects  deeply  our  daily  well- 
being.  A  great  proportion  of  our  burdens  nuist  be  placed  to  its 
account;  it  peoples  our  prisons  and  our  hospitals,  desolates  our 
land  with  pauperism,  and  taxes  us  for  the  costly  machinery  of  police 
establishments  and  criminal  judicature;  while  it  largely  deducts 
from  the  happiness  of  every  feeling  man,  to  witness  and  live  sur- 
rounded by  the  nameless  and  numberless  suflerings  which  it  entails 
upon  an  immense  portion  of  our  countrymen.  From  these  suffer- 
ings they  have  a  claim  on  that  system  called  the  Nation,  for  de- 
liverance.— Simpson. 

When  we  look  into  the  history  of  this  world, 
two  things  are  seen  upon  nearly  every  page, — man's 
ignorance  and  man's  wickedness.  History  presents 
another  truth ;  the  most  ignorant  individuals  and 
nations  have  been  the  most  vicious  and  degraded. 
The  present  condition  of  the  world  reveals  slavery 
and  misery  where  the  people  are  ignorant,  and 
liberty  and  happiness  where  there  is  mental  and 
moral  light.  When  the  mind  is  not  improved  by 
virtue  and  knowledge,  it  will  be  governed  and  de- 
based by  the  passions  and  appetites,  and  employed 
in  planning  and  executing  that  which  destroys  hap- 
piness and  prevents  improvement. 

How  far  human  suffering  may  be  attributed  to 
ignorance,  or  how  many  of  the  evils  which  have 
236 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  237 

and  do  exist  among  the  inhabitants  of  this  earth 
originated  from  ignorance,  would  be  difficult  to  as- 
certain ;  but  we  do  see  and  know  enough,  to  say, 
that  the  amount  of  suffering  from  ignorance  is  im- 
measurable, and  that  the  evils  are  innumerable. 
Ignorance  has  not  only  multiplied  evils,  by  misap- 
plying what  is  good,  but  has  given  an  imaginary 
existence  to  many  of  the  most  fearful  nature,  and 
which  have  long  distressed  and  enslaved  the  human 
race. 

"  While  ignorant  of  the  laws  of  nature,  man  has 
connected  with  some  of  her  most  beautiful  and 
benevolent  operations,  false  and  imaginary  terrors. 
Before  the  sun  of  knowledge  has  poured  light  upon 
the  mental  darkness  of  a  tribe  or  nation,  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun  in  the  heavens  is  viewed  by  the  terrified 
and  trembling  beholders  with  the  utmost  dismay 
and  consternation.  The  ignorant  have  supposed 
the  moon,  while  in  an  eclipse,  or  what  is  the  same 
thing,  while  passing  through  the  shadow  of  the 
earth,  was  sickening  or  dying  through  the  influence 
of  enchanters. 

"  To  appease  the  enemies  of  their  evening  luminary, 
they  have  practised  the  most  torturing  and  irrational 
ceremonies,  and  submitted  themselves  to  the  most 
excruciating  pain.  Many  tribes  and  nations  are  still 
enslaved  by  these  foolish  notions  and  cruel  customs. 
The  appearance  of  comets,  too,  are  still  regarded  as 
forerunners  of  earthquakes,  famines,  pestilences,  and 
the  most  dreadful  calamities.  They  know  not  that 
comets  are  regular  bodies  belonging  to  our  system, 
and  appear  and  disappear  at  stated  periods  of  time 
After  a  slight  knowledge  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
the  appearance  of  a  comet  excites  as  little  fear  as  the 
appearance  of  the  sun. 

"  Ignorance  has  admitted  into  the  minds  of  men 
many  absurd  notions  respecting  judicial  astrology  ^ 
which  have  destroyed  the  peace  and  happiness  of 


238  DISTRICT   SCHOOL. 

many  tribes  and  nations.  They  have  supposed  that 
the  characters  and  destinies  of  men  are  fixed,  by 
tlie  appearance  of  certain  stars,  or  the  meetings  of 
certain  planets  at  the  time  of  birth.  Under  this 
belief,  the  most  foolish  and  unfounded  apprehen- 
sions, and  the  most  delusive  hopes  have  been  enter- 
tained, either  to  torture  or  disappoint  the  mind. 

"  A  small  acquaintance  with  the  planetary  bodies 
w^ill  show  that  such  fears  and  hopes  have  the  great- 
est absurdity ;  for  it  is  easily  seen,  that  although 
these  bodies  may  affect  the  earth,  they  can  never 
affect  the  qualities  of  the  mind,  or  the  operations  of 
moral  causes.  Notwithstanding  the  absurdity  of 
these  doctrines  of  astrology,  the  most  learned  nations 
of  antiquity  have  believed  them ;  and  by  them  have 
been  thrown  into  the  greatest  disorder,  agony,  and 
despair. 

"  The  arbiters,  or  astrologers,  who  observed  the 
planets  and  other  natural  appearances,  and  foretold 
the  fortunes  of  the  ignorant  multitude,  raised  them- 
selves to  great  authority,  and,  like  other  impostors, 
demanded  exorbitant  fees  for  their  lying  services. 
These  are  some  of  the  natural  and  regular  planetary 
laws  and  phenomena  which  the  ignorance  of  man 
has  made  objects  of  alarm,  terror,  and  apprehension. 

"  On  the  earth,  ignorance  has  seen  innumerable 
objects  which  have  bewildered  and  distracted  the 
timid  and  credulous.  The  ignes  fatui  are  regarded 
as  malicious  spirits,  sent  to  lead  the  traveller  astray, 
and,  in  the  end,  conduct  him  to  the  place  of  torment. 
A  little  knowledge  would  enable  any  one  to  see, 
that  these  meteors  are  nothing  more  than  harmless 
lights,  formed  by  the  burning  of  a  certain  gas  or 
vapour  which  naturally  rises  from  the  moist  soil 
over  w^hich  they  are  alw\ays  seen."^ 

Ignorance  has  created  distressing  fears  from  the 

*  Dick  on  the  Improvement  of  Society. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  239 

ticking  noise  of  an  insect,  heard  during  the  stiHness 
of  night — from  the  scream  of  a  bird — from  the  howl 
of  a  dog — from  the  fall  of  a  chimney — from  an  acci- 
dental noise  in  an  unoccupied  apartment  of  a  sus- 
pected dwelling — from  an  immediate  return  after 
something  that  had  been  forgotten — from  having 
put  on  a  garment  with  the  inside  turned  out — from 
having  set  out  on  a  journey,  or  undertaken  some 
employment  on  Friday — from  an  unusual  noise  in  a 
boiling  tea-kettle. 

From  a  ringing  in  the  ear  (supposed  to  be  the 
echo  of  a  tolling  bell  for  some  deceased  friend) — 
from  meeting  with  a  snake  lying  in  the  road — from 
upsetting  the  salt-dish — from  the  sudden  and  acci- 
dental striking  of  a  silent  clock — from  breaking  a 
looking-glass — from  seeing  the  new  moon  over  the 
left  shoulder — from  not  having  uncovered  the  head 
while  a  funeral  procession  passed — from  missing  the 
mouth  while  taking  food — from  being  presented 
with  a  knife  or  any  cutting  instrument,  and  from 
its  raining  into  the  grave  of  a  friend  before  it  was 
closed. 

All  of  these  whims,  and  thousands  of  others  of  a 
similar  nature,  have  been  regarded  with  apprehen- 
sions of  terror,  as  the  forerunners  of  impending  dis- 
asters, or  of  approaching  death  !  Such  is  the  slavery 
and  misery  of  ignorance ;  continually  filling  the 
ideal  world  with  objects  which  vassal  the  mind,  and 
preventing  those  feelings  of  gratitude  and  veneration 
which  are  due  to  the  wise  Creator  and  Governor 
of  the  universe. 

The  ignorant  and  superstitious  (and  none  arc 
superstitious  but  the  ignorant  or  the  improperly 
educated)  are  constantly  seeing  spectres  which  make 
the  heart  faint  and  the  joints  tremble — Hobgoblins, 
with  their  gigantic  forms  and  unearthly  voices — 
Fairies,  with  their  ever-changing  bodiless  forms, 
now  a  monster,  and  now  the  least  of  airy  nothings, 


240  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

with  their  gigantic  workings  or  their  silent  invisi- 
ble spells  and  magical  charms — Satyrs,  with  their 
ghastly  and  satanic  errands  and  influences. 

Imps,  Wraiths,  and  Genii,  with  their  powers  of 
making  all  under  their  control  wild  and  miserable — 
Witches,  who  inflict  incurable  diseases,  and  torment 
the  souls  of  the  departed  ;  with  their  powers  of 
transforming  human  beings  into  horses,  cats,  and 
mermaids  ;  and  having  thrown  the  bridle  over  them, 
cause  them  to  traverse  the  air  on  the  wings  of  the 
wind,  over  bridgeless  rivers,  and  through  the  caverns 
and  whirlpools  of  the  ocean — and  Wizards,  who  are 
supposed  to  turn  men  into  fiends,  and  call  back  the 
spirits  of  the  dead,  and  put  mortals  into  the  society 
of  the  ghostly,  sepulchral  world,  and  who  magically 
deceive  and  destroy  mortals  by  an  inscrutable  agency 
with  the  devil. 

All  of  these  beings  and  agencies,  ignorance  places 
in  the  ideal  world.  It  fills  the  air  with  apparitions 
and  terrifying  phantoms,  which  stalk  forth  in  the 
silence  of  night  to  alarm  the  weak  and  timid.  From 
the  lonely  churchyard,  and  the  dark  deep  woods, 
the  ignorant  hear  supernatural  voices,  and  see  mon- 
strous shapes. 

Such  is  the  tyranny  and  misery  of  the  ignorant ! 
Who  can  know  the  bondage  and  suffering  which 
the  illiterate  feel !  and  who  is  there  that  does  not 
desire  knowledge  which  at  once  frees  him  from  all 
these  deadly  fears  and  galling  fetters  ? — for  ignorance 
has  given  existence  to  every  ideal  being  we  have 
mentioned. 

Besides  these  ideal  beings  and  agencies,  which 
are  for  ever  present  with  the  ignorant  to  terrify  and 
distress,  there  are  also  a  great  many  foolish  and  erro- 
neous opinions  which  pass  current  for  genuine  truths 
among  the  uninformed  part  of  mankind.  These 
apothegms,  or  trite  sayings,  have  a  wonderful  prac- 
tical influence ;  they  are  at  once  the  philosophy  and 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  241 

the  guide  of  the  vulgar  or  the  uneducated.  The 
world  is  full  of  these  proverbs  or  maxims,  and  it 
is  to  be  lamented  that  so  many  of  them  are  false, 
that  the  ignorant  are  not  able  to  discriminate  and 
judge  for  themselves,  but  are  so  frequently  rendered 
foolish,  and  led  astray  by  them. 

These  are  some  of  the  whimsical  and  false  sayings 
which  all  must  have  frequently  heard.  That  a  man 
has  one  rib  less  than  a  woman ;  that  the  city  of  Je- 
rusalem is  in  the  centre  of  the  world  ;  that  the  tenth 
wave  of  the  sea  is  more  dangerous  than  any  other ; 
that  all  animals  on  the  land  have  others  like  them 
in  the  sea ;  that  the  ocean  and  some  lakes  have  no 
bottom  ;  that  white  powder  kills  without  making  a 
noise  ;  that  all  of  the  stars  are  lighted  by  the  sun. 

That  a  burning  candle,  made  of  human  fat,  will 
prevent  a  sleeping  man  from  waking ;  that  young 
toads  are  rained  down  ;  that  the  weather  of  the  last 
Friday  of  the  month  foretells  the  weather  of  the  fol- 
lowing month ;  that  a  warm  winter  will  be  followed 
by  a  cold  summer  ;  that  the  winter  is  cold  because  the 
sun  is  farther  from  the  earth  ;  that  ignorance  is  bliss ; 
that  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing ;  that  genius 
can  do  nothing  without  leisure  and  teachers ;  that 
men  of  business  have  no  time  to  study ;  that  what 
is  everybody's  business  is  nobody's. 

That  a  man  may  know  too  much  for  his  business ; 
that  ignorance  is  an  excuse  for  crime ;  that  the  rich 
only  are  happy ;  that  all  things  are  useless  which 
are  not  practical  ;  that  it  makes  no  diflerence  what 
a  man  believes,  if  he  is  only  sincere;  that  the  lazy 
man  gets  the  most  game;  that  the  foolish  labour,  but 
the  idle  reap  ;  that  there  is  but  one  penny,  and  the 
die  get  it ;  that  the  world  owes  all  a  living  ;  and 
that  a  man  may  be  too  religious. 

To  all  of  these,  and  many  more,  ignorance  and 
credulity  have  given  assent!  How  little  of  the 
true   nature  of  things  do  the  ignorant  know,  and 

X 


242  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

how  easily  they  may  be  imposed  upon.  Have  not 
the  errors  which  mfluence  society  been  the  cause 
of  more  evil  than  depravity  itself?  The  great 
majority  of  the  human  race  have  been  blinded  by 
these  notions  and  false  maxims,  and  they  still  prevail 
in  the  United  States  to  a  great  extent 

When  such  ubsin^ditics  and  falsehoods  are  be- 
lieved, the  mind  is  made  incapable  of  reaso)iing 
correctly  on  any  subject,  and  in  a  short  time  becomes 
degraded  to  the  lowest  degree.  How  painful  to  see 
so  many  rational  and  immortal  minds  unfitted  for 
moral  and  intellectual  growth  and  enjoyment  ! 
How  painful  to  see  so  many  who  will  never  feel 
the  dignity  of  their  nature,  or  fulfil  the  end  of  their 
being  !        •  •.--» 

Ignorance  and  error  have  always  led  to  the  com- 
mission of  deeds  of  cruelty  and  rank  injustice.  In 
heathen  countries,  how  many  millions  of  lives  have 
been  poured  out,  and  how  much  pain  and  agony 
from  bodily  torture,  through  ignorance  of  the  true 
nature  and  worship  of  God  !  Through  ignorance, 
how  cruel  has  been  the  oppression  in  every  land 
and  nation  of  unjust  laws  and  tyrannical  institutions! 
Through  ignorance  and  error,  how  merciless  and 
bloody  have  been  the  thousands  of  persecutions 
which  have  filled  the  earth  with  violence,  and 
covered  it  with  blood  !  On  whatever  portion  of 
the  world  or  period  of  time  we  place  the  eye,  we 
shall  see  that  ignorance,  vice,  and  misery  have  been, 
and  are  inseparable. 

But  there  are  other  evils  arising  from  ignorance, 
equally  distressing  to  the  mind  and  destructive  to 
the  body,  as  any  we  have  described  or  enumerated. 
They  are  those  which  the  ignorant  bring  upon  them- 
selves by  not  perceiving  and  conforming  to  the 
natural  relations  which  exist  between  themselves 
and  the  objects  around  them. 


DISTRICT  SCHOOL.  243 

Relations  which  must  at  all  times  be  our  law  and 
our  rule  of  action,  if  we  are  kept  in  the  path  of  true 
happiness  ;  but  these  relations  are  not  known  and 
obeyed  by  the  illiterate,  for  they  are  ignorant  of 
themselves  and  the  qualities  of  natural  objects. 
They  have  never  looked  upon  themselves  as  animal, 
intellectual,  and  moral  beings,  and  learned  that  hap- 
piness cannot  be  found  and  possessed,  except  the 
intellectual  and  moral  faculties  have  the  supremacy 
or  the  control  over  the  animal  nature. 

Not  having  their  moral  and  intellectual  nature 
developed,  or  put  in  exercise  by  mental  and  moral 
instruction,  they  are  ignorant  of  any  other  happiness 
but  that  derived  from  the  gratification  of  their  lowest 
natures — their  animal  appetites  and  passions.  In 
this  they  are  disappointed ;  for  when  the  animal 
nature  is  properly  gratified,  its  pleasures  are  not 
sufficient  to  satisfy  a  being  who  has  an  intellectual 
and  moral  nature.  This  kind  of  gratification  may 
satisfy  brutes,  for  they  do  not  possess  consciousness 
or  reflection. 

The  pleasures  of  sense  continue  but  a  short  time, 
for  they  soon  lose  their  relish, — soon  become  blunted 
or  disordered,  and  lose  all  power  of  pleasing.  And 
the  man  who  has  lost  the  pleasures  of  their  proper 
gratification,  tries  their  improper  and  excessive  ex- 
ercise ;  and  by  this  means  destroys  his  body,  and 
cuts  himself  ofT  for  ever  from  intellectual  and  moral 
enjoyment.  The  sensual  nature  is  in  an  unhealthy 
state,  and  the  mind  in  subjection  to  it. 

Here,  evidently,  is  the  chief  cause  of  human  evils 
and  affliction ;  a  diseased,  sensual  nature,  and  its 
dominion  over  the  moral  and  intellectual  nature. 
A  man  in  this  condition  (and  there  are  multitudes 
without  number  in  it)  is  full  of  imaginary  anxieties, 
teased  by  ungovernable  appetites  and  passions,  which 
can  never  be  gratified,  and  finding  tastelessness  in 


244  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

all  his  shifts  and  efforts  after  that  which  he  has  long 
since  unfitted  himself  for  enjoying.* 

One  great  office  of  the  mind  is  to  keep  the  body 
from  excesses  and  injury,  but  it  never  performs  this 
office  unless  it  is  illuminated  by  truth  and  know- 
ledge. While  the  mind  remains  ignorant,  and  the 
aflfections  of  the  heart  unlawfully  placed,  there  is  no 
government  over  the  appetites  and  passions,  and 
their  unrestrained  gratification  soon  brings  misery 
and  destruction.  There  is  a  voice  coming  from 
every  individual  in  the  long  catalogue  of  the  human 
family,  telling  us  that  men  need  knowledge  to  over- 
power their  passions,  to  master  their  prejudices,  and 
to  render  them  haopy. 


SECTION  II. 

ADVANTAGES    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 

The  value  of  knowledge,  and  the  advantage  it 
gives  its  possessor,  may  be  seen  in  a  variety  of 
ways.  The  evils  of  ignorance  were  shown  by 
directing  the  attention  to  the  fears  and  sufferings  of 
those  individuals  and  nations  upon  whom  the  light 
of  knowledge  has  never  shone.     In  the  same  way 

*  There  exist  no  adequate  means,  either  in  private  families 
or  public  institutions,  with  the  exception  of  Infant-schools, 
for  educating  the  feelings,  improving  the  dispositions,  restrain- 
ing the  inferior  propensities,  and  exercising  the  higher  senti- 
ments,— in  short,  for  moral  training.  In  all  this  we  took 
our  chance,  and  picked  up  what  we  might  from  partial  parents, 
nursery  maids,  and  juvenile  companions.  The  animal  feelings 
being  the  strongest,  acted  in  us  with  all  the  blindness  and  all 
the  power  of  instincts,  and  laid  a  broad  and  deep  foundation 
for  habitual  selfishness. — Simpson. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  245 

we  might  show  the  advantages  of  knowledge  by 
referring  to  the  means  of  happiness,  and  the  enjoy- 
ments of  those  nations  where  the  individuals  are 
enlightened  ;  where  the  sun  of  knowledge  has  shone 
upon  the  whole  people. 

By  comparing  an  ignorant  people  with  one  that 
is  enlightened,  we  shall  see  that  knowledge  prevents 
those  crimes  and  cruelties  which  render  a  nation 
dishonoured  and  debased  ;  while  on  the  other  hand, 
it  has  conferred  the  means  of  improvement  and 
enjoyment  which  has  made  a  nation  prosperous, 
honoured,  and  happy.  If  all  could  make  such  a 
comparison  between  a  literate  and  illiterate  people, 
as  to  obtain  the  aggregate  of  the  pains  and  pleasures 
which  each  sufiers  and  enjoys,  we  would  want  no 
other  proof  of  the  advantages  of  knowledge,  than  the 
one  this  comparison  would  present. 

But  there  are  few,  if  any,  who  do  this.  The 
greatest  number  of  any  people  are  but  imperfectly 
acquainted  with  their  own  condition  ;  they  know  not 
the  distinguishing  privileges  which  they  may  pos- 
sess ;  nor  the  wretchedness  of  their  condition  when 
compared  with  the  more  favoured.  And  when  men 
are  conscious  of  possessing  comforts  which  they  see 
are  denied  to  others,  they  seldom  think  of  that  which 
makes  the  difference. 

They  are  contented  with  their  enjoyments,  and 
appear  insensible  to  that  which  produced  them. 
The  ignorant  and  the  wretched  know  not  the  con- 
veniences which  the  enlightened  possess,  nor  the 
enjoyment  of  the  exercise  of  their  moral  and  intel- 
lectual nature,  and  are  therefore  contented  with  their 
wretched  existence.  Thus,  since  the  exalted  are 
indifferent  to  that  which  gave  them  their  distinction, 
and  the  debased  to  that  which  might  improve  their 
condition,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  some  of  the 
advantages  of  knowledge  which  have  blessed  the 
one,  and  which  may  assist  the  other. 
X  2 


246  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

Knowledge,  by  showing  the  true  principles  and 
nature  of  things,  tvill  pi^evcnt  those  evils  which 
originate  in  ignorance.  The  phenomena  of  nature, 
which  were  once  beheld  with  alarm,  will  be  con- 
Verted  by  the  enlightened  into  sources  of  enjoyment, 
and  be  contemplated  with  emotions  of  delight. 
They  will  watch  the  appearance  of  these  phenomena 
with  joy  and  eagerness,  that  they  may  form  more 
enlarged  and  correct  ideas  of  their  Great  Creator. 
The  enlightened  will  be  less  deceived  by  the  false 
maxims  and  philosophy  in  the  world. 

They  will  throw  off  the  oppression  of  their  fellow- 
men,  and  claim  their  freedom  and  their  rights. 
That  which  their  Creator  intended  for  a  good  and  a 
blessing,  they  may  no  longer  abuse  by  ignorant  per- 
versions. They  will  see  the  relations  which  they 
have  to  their  fellow-men,  to  society,  and  to  the  con- 
stitution of  the  world  ;  and  having  seen  these  natural 
laws  which  the  Creator  has  given  for  their  rule  of 
life,  they  will  be  more  disposed  to  obey  them,  and 
thus  receive  the  reward  of  obedience.  The  enlight- 
ened may  greatly  increase  their  own  happiness  and 
the  happiness  of  mankind,  by  contributing  to  the 
advancement  of  the  useful  arts  and  sciences. 

All  science  is  founded  upon  facts ;  these  facts  are 
obtained  by  observing  Nature  ;  and  who  is  there  that 
has  a  better  opportunity  for  making  such  observa- 
tions than  the  intelligent  farmer.  Nature  is  his 
companion ;  her  wonderful  productions  and  changes 
are  constantly  before  him.  Nature  and  he  are  co- 
workers, toiling  hand  in  hand  to  supply  the  world's 
returning  wants. 

He  sees  Nature  in  her  most  secret  workings,  acts 
with  her  in  her  silent  operations,  and  wherever  he  may 
be,  he  may  learn  a  lesson  from  her  instructions  which 
will  enable  him  to  inform  the  wise,  and  make  him 
a  teacher  from  the  great  school  of  the  Creator.  He 
may  be  daily  collecting  facts  which  will  establish  or 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  247 

destroy  some  doubtful  principle,  or  be  the  means  of 
creating  a  new  science  to  benefit  the  world  as  long 
as  time  shall  last. 

The  intelligent  practical  man  is  able  to  make  a 
fair  trial  of  the  projected  improvements  of  the 
theorist,  and  thus  secure  a  good  or  prevent  an  im- 
position. The  labouring  man  has  taught  the  world 
many  of  its  most  useful  lessons ;  and  a  great  part  of 
that  knowledge  which  is  now  multiplying  the  neces- 
saries, and  increasing  the  pleasures  of  life,  has  been 
furnished  by  the  observing  firmer  or  the  skilful 
mechanic.  If  all  men  were  intelligent  enough  to 
think  when  they  observe,  and  active  enough  to 
observe  when  they  think,  how  much  that  is  useful, 
but  unknown,  would  soon  be  discovered! 

Knowledge  ivill  make  mechanics  more  skilful 
in  the  arts  ;  for  every  art  is  founded  on  scientific 
principles,  and  he  who  has  a  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  a  science,  must  be  more  skilful  in  the  prac- 
tice of  the  arts,  and  will  be  prepared  to  carry  them 
to  the  highest  point  of  improvement.  It  should  be 
the  desire  of  every  one  to  furnish  the  head  with 
such  knowledge  that  it  will  be  able  to  assist  the 
hands. 

A  mechanic,  by  exercising  his  ingenuity  and  the 
powers  of  a  cultivated  mind,  might  save  himself 
much  of  that  labour  which  he  will  otherwise  be 
obliged  to  go  through.  Every  mechanic  may  lessen 
and  lighten  his  daily  task,  if  he  will  but  inform  his 
mind  in  the  nature  and  principles  of  his  art,  as  well 
as  practise  his  limbs  in  the  mechanical  exercise  of 
the  trade.  Knowledge  would  not  only  render  me- 
chanics more  skilful,  but  would  enable  them  to  pro- 
duce articles  of  greater  perfection. 

That  which  is  done  by  a  mere  habit  of  muscular 
movement,  cannot  have  that  perfection  and  finish 
which  the  mind  in  co-operation  could  have  given  it. 
There  is  no  part  of  mechanism  whatever,  that  can 


248  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

be  well  understood,  or  profitably  employed,  with- 
out more  or  less  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  its 
action.  We  every  day  see  intelligent  mechanics 
who  make  better  articles  and  obtain  a  higher  price 
for  them  than  the  more  ignorant  of  the  same  trade 
are  able  to  do.  When  intelligence  comes  in  to  aid 
mechanical  skill,  it  will  alwa3's  obtain  the  advantage. 

An  ignorant  artist  is  not  able  to  judge  of  the  good 
or  bad  qualities  of  the  materials  which  he  must  use 
in  the  manufacture  of  his  articles.  He  is  liable  to 
be  deceived  in  these,  and  thus  loses  all  his  labour. 
Good  and  bad  materials  are  always  in  market,  and 
he  who  has  knowledge  sufficient  to  discriminate,  and 
form  a  right  estimation  of  the  comparative  values  of 
each,  will  secure  many  good  bargains,  and  escape 
many  impositions. 

We  see,  also,  the  decided  advantage  which  the 
intelligent  agriculturist  has  over  his  less  informed 
neighbours.  The  ignorant  do  as  their  fathers  have 
done,  and  know  not  that  there  are  improvements  in 
the  implements  of  husbandry.  They  know  not  that 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  can  be  far  better  under- 
stood by  a  little  inquiry  into  its  nature,  and  by  a 
knowledge  of  that  which  is  adapted  to  invigorate  it. 

A  profitable  culture  of  the  soil  requires  no  incon- 
siderable knowledge  of  the  best  manner  of  preparing 
it  for  the  several  grains  or  grasses.  To  know  what 
soil  is  best  adapted  to  a  particular  grain — to  choose 
the  best  time  for  sowing  and  reaping — to  judge  of 
the  qualities  of  grains — and  to  perceive  when  the 
soil  should  rest,  and  when  it  should  be  active,  require 
long  study  and  a  well  cultivated  mind. 

A  good  education  is  necessary,  that  you  may  he 
profited  by  public  instructions.  In  the  earlier 
part  of  life — during  that  time  which  is  spent  in 
school — you  should  obtain  the  means  of  acquiring 
knowledge.  After  you  have  gone  from  the  school- 
room and  the  instructer,  you  should  be  prepared  to 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  249 

receive  that  more  general  and  higher  instruction 
which  the  public  affords  ;  such  as  is  offered  by  public 
lectures  on  the  sciences,  intended  to  show  the  con- 
nexion between  science,  and  the  practical  purposes 
of  life  ;  the  public  instructions  on  the  Sabbath ;  and 
the  information  that  may  be  had  by  attending  the 
several  courts  of  justice,  which  may  sit  from  time 
to  time  where  you  dwell  or  in  the  neighbouring 
vicinity. 

It  will  also  require  a  disciplined,  improved  mind, 
to  profit  by  the  intelligent  conversation  of  those  who 
have  had  higher  advantages  of  education.  Every 
individual  may  find  much  improvement  in  either  or 
all  of  these  kinds  of  public  instruction,  if  he  has  a 
mind  so  far  improved  as  to  desire  and  love  know- 
ledge. 

It  is  too  frequently  seen  that  young  men  prefer 
places  of  noisy  merriment,  or  vicious  resort,  to 
places  of  moral  and  mental  improvement.  One 
great  cause  of  this  unhappy  preference  is  their  de- 
fective early  education.  They  have  not  intelligence 
sufficient  to  enable  them  to  take  an  interest  in  lite- 
rary subjects,  or  public  questions,  and  they  feel  dis- 
inclined to  attend  the  discussions. 

Therefore  they  are  excluded  from  the  society  of 
the  virtuous  and  better  informed,  and  are  ready  to 
be  enticed  into  scenes  of  dishonour  or  injustice,  and 
finally  to  become  outcasts  of  society.  Young  men 
should  have  obtained  that  education  which  will 
exempt  them  from  these  alluring  temptations,  and 
that  will  give  them  a  desire  to  seize  every  oppor- 
tunity for  improving  their  minds  with  useful  know- 
ledge. 

The  preacher  from  the  pulpit  addresses  hundreds 
of  his  congregation,  who,  through  ignorance,  "have 
ears  and  hear  not ;''  and  he  puts  the  book  of  life 
into  their  hands,  but  they  are  ignorant,  and  "have 
eyes  and   see   not."      Their    education   has   been 


250  DISTllICT    SCHOOL. 

neglected,  or  they  have  vohintarily  deprived  them- 
selves of  it,  and  their  feeble  minds  and  limited  at- 
tainments prevent  them  from  receiving  those  in- 
structions which  would  have  strengthened  their 
virtues,  and  have  shown  them  the  folly  of  their  evil 
ways. 

An  intelligent  public  is  a  constant  teacher,  and 
the  instructions  are  of  the  most  practical  nature  ;  and 
all  have  the  opportunity,  more  or  less,  of  receiving 
its  lessons.  Yet,  but  very  few  have  that  active 
state  of  mind,  and  those  elementary  and  necessary 
attainments,  which  would  patronise  and  encourage 
such  instruction,  and  make  them  interesting  and 
profitable. 

We  know  that  there  is  a  want  of  confidence  in 
public  lecturers ;  too  many  of  these  teachers  have 
promised  what  they  were  unable  to  perform ;  yet, 
it  will  not  be  denied  but  that  there  are  many,  who, 
if  they  were  listened  to  by  intelligent  minds,  would 
communicate  much  which  would  be  both  pleasing 
and  useful.  The  reason  that  the  public  is  so  fre- 
quently deceived  with  mere  pretenders,  is  its  ina- 
bility to  appreciate,  and  unwillingness  to  reward 
those  who  are  better. 

That  the  public  may  desire  and  invite  sound, 
valuable  knowledge,  the  people  must  receive  that 
kind  and  amount  of  preparatory  instruction  which 
will  make  them  eager  for  higher  attainments,  and 
capable  of  making  use  of  their  knowledge,  either  as 
means  of  intellectual  growth,  or  of  amusement,  or 
of  assistance  in  the  practical  purposes  of  life.  The 
ignorant  know  not  their  daily  loss  from  being  dis- 
qualified to  encourage  and  understand  these  public 
instructions. 

In  the  present  age,  knowledge  is  separated  from 
the  technicalities  and  precluding  forms  which  for- 
merly placed  it  beyond  the  common  walks  of  life, 
and  is  simplified  and  diffused  through  the  whole 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  251 

community.  If  a  man  will  obtain  a  good  element- 
ary education,  he  can,  under  the  present  improve- 
ments, have  access  to  all  the  higher  branches  of 
literature  and  science. 

If  he  will  but  lay  a  good  foundation  in  those  pri- 
mary schools  which  are  open  to  all,  he  may  raise  a 
noble,  beautiful  superstructure,  and  this  with  but 
very  little  assistance  from  others.  Knowledge  is 
brought  to  the  door  of  every  individual,  and  the 
only  requirements  that  are  made  for  his  receiving  it, 
almost  gratis,  are  such  culture  and  discipline  of  mind 
as  will  fit  him  for  the  instruction. 

We  believe,  then,  that  every  youth  will  see  that 
a  good  education,  or  a  certain  degree  of  elementary 
knowledge,  is  necessary  to  prepare  him  for  being 
benefited  by  the  valuable  instructions  of  the  public. 
And  by  looking  at  the  honours  and  rewards  of  those 
who  have  improved  these  public  privileges,  they 
will  see  the  advantages  of  knowledge. 

Knowledge,  again,  would  qualify  men  for  judg- 
ing correctly  of  human  character  and  human 
enjoyment.  There  are  many  false  characters,  and 
false  appearances  of  happiness,  which  will  deceive 
the  illiterate,  but  will  be  detected  by  the  intelligent. 
The  ignorant  are  very  frequently  deceived  and  made 
wretched,  by  putting  their  trust  in  those  who  have 
the  deceptive  power  of  appearing  what  they  are  not. 

They  are  necessarily  more  dependent  upon  others, 
but  unfortunately  less  capable  of  discriminating  be- 
tween honesty  and  villany — a  protecting  friend  and 
a  betraying  enemy.  When  men  are  brought  to- 
gether, the  intelligent  will  govern,  they  will  have  a 
controlling  influence  in  society  ;  but  as  all  of  the 
intelligent  are  not  virtuous  and  honest,  it  frequently 
requires  a  considerable  degree  of  knowledge  on  the 
part  of  others  to  expose  their  sophistry  and  their 
abuse  of  power. 

The  uneducated,  or,  what  is  almost  the  same  thing. 


252  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

the  poorly  educated,  are  very  liable  not  only  to  form 
wrong  estimates  of  individual  worth,  but  to  consider 
certain  possessions  and  distinctions  among  men  to 
be  the  true  means  of  happiness.  For  these,  in  their 
ignorance,  they  put  forth  every  effort,  and  make 
every  sacrifice ;  depriving  themselves  of  the  com- 
forts of  the  situation  they  have,  that  they  may  reach 
that  which  will  be  unsatisfying  when  possessed. 

A  little  knowledge  would  have  convinced  them 
that  happiness  arises  from  no  condition,  but  is  always 
found  with  the  virtuous,  industrious,  and  contented. 
A  little  reflection  or  philosophy  would  tell  them 
that  the  rich  apd  the  gay  are  not  necessarily  happy, 
and  that  he  only  can  be  happy  who  has  a  well  culti- 
vated mind,  and  a  well  ordered  life. 

The  advantages  of  knowledge  are  seen,  likewise, 
when  we  are  capable  of  making  a  distinction  between 
books  and  periodicals  which  are  valuable,  and  those 
that  are  jiernicious.  Ever  since  the  invention  of 
signs  of  thought,  men  in  all  countries  have  written 
for  their  contemporaries,  and  for  posterity.  Many 
of  these  writings  or  books  are  good,  and  many  of 
them  are  bad.  Some  contain  noble,  purifying  sen- 
timents; but  others  that  which  is  false  and  corrupting. 

The  latter  are  addressed  to  the  depraved  taste  of 
readers,  and  have  ready  and  extensive  circulation. 
These  deceive,  unless  there  is  intelligence  to  detect 
their  spaciousness.  They  will  certainly  be  read, 
unless  the  mind  has  been  educated  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  can, see  their  seductive,  polluting  tendency. 
To  make  a  right  discrimination  among  the  multitude 
of  books  which  are  brought  into  the  market,  requires 
a  sound  education  and  considerable  knowledge. 

The  ignorant  are  often  deceived,  and  seriously  in- 
jured, by  not  perceiving  the  tendency  of  works  which 
they  may  purchase  or  be  requested  to  read  ;  and  the 
advantages  of  knowledge  are  great  when  we  are  se- 
lecting books  for  our  own  reading,  or  for  that  of  our 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  253 

friends.  An  uncultivated  mind,  too,  will  always 
prefer  something  that  is  frivolous  and  unworthy  of 
its  attention  ;  but  the  mind  that  has  rightly  com- 
menced its  search  after  truth  and  knowledge,  will 
reject  that  which  is  low  and  trifling,  and  secure  that 
which  is  worthy  of  its  high  powers  and  immortal 
existence. 

The  privilege  which  an  educated  reading  man 
has  of  knowing  what  is  transactiyig  in  the  tvorld, 
is  of  great  importance  to  himself  and  to  others. 
The  illiterate  know  but  little  beyond  the  boundaries 
of  their  daily  labours ;  their  minds  are  cramped 
within  the  narrow  circle  which  they  are  obliged  to 
keep,  and  they  are  wholly  excluded  from  a  partici- 
pation in  those  great  subjects  which  are  interesting 
a  part  of  their  fellow-beings. 

The  papers,  which  contain  a  day's  or  a  week's 
history  of  the  living,  acting  world,  have  no  interest 
to  them ;  but  to  a  man,  whose  mind  has  been  en- 
larged by  knowledge,  and  made  acquainted  with 
the  condition  of  his  country,  and  the  great  changes 
that  are  constantly  taking  place  in  it,  the  news  of 
the  daily  or  weekly  press  is  hailed  with  interest  and 
with  delight. 

There  is  a  criminal  apathy  or  an  erroneous  im- 
pression in  the  ignorant,  in  relation  to  public  affairs, 
which  is  disgraceful  to  themselves  and  injurious  to 
their  country.  A  friend  to  his  country  will  make 
himself  one  of  its  intelligent  members,  and  correctly 
inform  himself  of  all  its  important  interests  and 
movements. 

This  information  will  make  him  a  desirable  and 
profitable  companion,  and  all  will  see  that  his  intel- 
ligence gives  him  many  advantages,  and  a  much 
greater  influence  than  he  otherwise  would  have. 
Let  every  young  man,  then,  who  wishes  to  be  ac- 
ceptable to  his  friends  and  useful  to  his  country, 
obtain  some  information  of  what  is  going  on  iii  the 


254  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

world  ;  and  let  him  so  educate  his  mind,  that  he  will 
be  able  to  use  or  communicate  this  information  with 
credit  to  himself  and  benefit  to  others. 

Knowledge  would  cause  all,  after  an  honest  exa- 
mination, to  see  the  evidence  of  revealed  religion, 
and  its  harmony  with  natural  revelation.  An 
unlimited  credulity  or  a  dangerous  skepticism  is  the 
certain  companion  of  ignorance.  An  intelligent, 
honest  mind  rejects  that  which  is  not  biblical,  and 
believes  and  obeys  that  which  is.  The  man  who 
has  been  educated  to  think  for  himself,  can  discern 
an  internal  evidence  in  every  part  of  the  Christian 
revelation ;  an  evidence  that  is  clear,  full,  and  satis- 
factory. 

And  he  who  is  intelligent  may  look  into  the  evi- 
dence from  testimony,  and  see  one  strong,  unbroken 
chain  of  testimonial  proof,  running  back  from  the 
present  moment  to  the  very  time  when  the  prophets 
and  apostles  proclaimed  their  inspired  message  to  a 
guilty  world.  And  he  who  can  look  into  the  pro- 
vidence or  works  of  the  Creator,  will  find  the  same 
revelation  of  the  Eternal  One  and  his  will  concerning 
man  that  is  made  known  in  the  Scriptures. 

Indeed,  the  Bible  is  the  mouth  of  Nature ;  if  we 
will  listen  to  its  voice,  all  the  truths  in  creation's 
volume  are  heard  and  known.  The  same  infinite 
love  for  his  creatures  in  the  one  that  we  see  in  the 
other ;  the  same  moral  government  in  constant  ex- 
ercise over  men,  that  is  made  known  in  the  Scrip- 
tures ;  the  same  reward  of  virtue  and  punishment 
of  vice  here  taking  place  on  the  earth  (though  not 
in  so  perfect  a  manner  now)  that  will  be  distributed 
in  the  world  hereafter. 

Whoever  will  look,  may  see  the  same  govern- 
ment commenced  on  earth  that  is  made  known  in 
the  Bible,  and  that  is  to  continue  through  eternity. 
The  individual  who  has  intelligence  sufficient  to 
examine  the  influence,  the  testimonial  proof,  and  the 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  255 

corroborative  evidence  in  the  ways  and  works  of 
God,  will  find  that  there  is  no  truth  on  earth  so  well 
established  as  the  truth  of  the  Bible.  And  who 
does  not  desire  knowledge,  when  it  can  give  us 
satisfaction  on  this  great  subject? 

The  ignorant  cannot  examine  for  themselves ;  they 
must  believe,  because  others  say  there  is  evidence  ; 
but  they  know  that  man  does  not  always  tell  the 
truth,  and  that  he  may,  from  some  personal  interest, 
wish  to  deceive  his  fellow-men :  this  want  of  confi- 
dence in  man  makes  what  he  says  doubtful ;  and 
there  is  always  with  those  who  cannot  examine  for 
themselves,  an  uncertainty  and  a  distressing  anxiety 
respecting  the  truth  of  the  Bible.  The  advantages 
of  knowledge  are  unspeakable,  if  it  should  do  no- 
thing more  than  settle  this  momentous  question. 
Let  every  one,  then,  respect  his  powers,  and  know 
for  himself. 

Knowledge  assists  us  informing  more  enlarged 
and  correct  conceptions  of  the  Deity.  He  is  known 
through  his  attributes,  and  unless  the  mind  has  been 
enlarged  and  accustomed  to  form  an  adequate  idea 
of  these,  his  nature  will  not  be  perceived.  It  is  dif- 
ficult for  the  mind  that  has  always  seen  body  and 
spirit  united,  to  divest  the  Deity  of  matter,  and  view 
him  as  a  Spirit  all  powerful,  all  knowing,  and  always 
present.  It  requires  deep  abstraction  and  a  steady 
vision. 

The  ignorant  must  necessarily  form  very  erro- 
neous ideas  of  the  nature  and  existence  of  their 
Creator.  He  reveals  himself  by  the  greatness  of 
nis  doings  and  the  immensity  of  his  works ;  and 
except  the  mind  in  some  measure  can  understand 
these,  it  will  know  but  little  of  its  Maker  and  its 
Judge.  How  necessary  is  knowledge,  that  we  may 
know  the  nature  and  the  government  of  Him  "with 
whom  we  have  to  do.^' 

Knowledge  is  necessary,  likewise,  that  we  may 


256  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

know  in  what  true  happiness  consists.  The  Cre- 
ator has  annexed  pleasure  to  some  actions  and  pain 
to  others ;  he  has  made  the  desire  and  possession 
of  some  things  to  be  the  means  of  happiness,  and 
the  desire  and  possession  of  other  things,  the  means 
of  unhappiness;  and  we  have  the  capacity  of  know- 
ing beforehand  what  actions  and  objects  will  make 
us  happy,  and  likewise  what  will  make  us  unhappy. 
But  this  knowledge  will  not  be  forced  upon  us  ; 
we  have  only  the  ability  to  know  ;  the  knowledge 
which  will  ensure  a  right  conduct,  and  consequently 
a  happy  life,  may  be  had  if  we  choose  to  possess  it. 
We  are  formed  for  observing  objects,  for  comparing 
them  together,  for  laying  down  principles,  and  for 
inferring  consequences.  And  man  was  made  to  be 
happy;  and  this  earth  and  all  things  in  it  and  upon 
it  were  made  for  his  happiness.  All  that  is  neces- 
sary is,  that  man  improve  his  faculties,  and  know 
what  is  good  and  what  is  evil,  and  then  desire  the 
former  and  refuse  the  latter.* 

*  Those  who  are  what  is  called  religioHsly  educated,  are 
not  more  fortunate ;  because  no  sect  in  religion  has  yet  ad- 
dressed itself  to  the  duty  of  teaching  the  nature  of  man,  the 
value  of  pursuits  in  life,  the  institutions  of  society,  and  the 
relation  of  all  these  to  the  religious  and  moral  faculties  of 
man;  without  understanding  these,  no  person  entering  upon 
active  life  can  see  his  way  clearly,  or  entertain  consistent  or 
elevated  views  of  duty,  and  the  true  sources  of  happiness.— 
Simpson. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  257 


SECTION  III. 

THE    NECESSITY    OF    GENERAL    INTELLIGENCE    IN   A 
,  FREE    GOVERNMENT. 

Here,  the  press  is  hotter,  the  strife  keener,  the  invention  more 
alive,  the  curiosity  more  awake,  the  wants  and  wishes  more  stimu- 
lated by  an  atmosphere  of  luxury,  than  perhaps  in  any  country 
since  the  world  began.  The  men  who,  in  their  several  classes, 
were  content  to  tread  step  for  step  in  the  paths  wherein  their  fa- 
thers trod,  are  gone.  Society  is  no  longer  a  calm  current,  but  a 
tossing  sea. 

Reverence  for  tradition,  for  authority,  is  gone.  In  such  a  state 
of  things,  who  can  deny  the  absolute  necessity  for  national  educa- 
tion 1 — Preface  to  Cousiu^s  Report. 

When  the  people  govern,  they  should  be  virtuous 
and  intelligent.  They  should  be  not  only  willing 
to  obey  the  laws,  but  competent  to  make  them.  The 
very  foundation  of  a  republican  government  is  based 
on  good  morals,  and  a  general  diffusion  of  knowledge 
among  the  whole  people.  Knowledge  is  not  only 
essential  to  the  prosperity  of  a  free  government,  but 
absolutely  necessary  to  its  existence;  it  is  at  once 
the  vital  principle  and  the  sustaining  power. 

The  experience  of  the  past  has  told  us,  that  wher- 
ever there  has  been  mental  and  moral  light,  there 
has  been  liberty;  and  wherever  the  people  were  ig- 
norant, there  was  slavery.  Since  this  is  so,  igno- 
rance, which  might  be  a  misfortune  in  another  coun- 
try, is  a  crime  in  this ;  especially,  since  the  means  of 
knowledge  are  within  the  reach  of  every  individual. 
In  this  republic,  the  intelligence  of  each  individual 
is  the  depository  and  defence  of  his  liberty. 

The  free  institutions  of  the  United  States  are  not 
secured  by  armies,  revenues,  or  constitutions ;  but 
by  universal  education.  The  education  of  the  people 
y2 


258  DISTRICT   SCHOOL. 

stands  in  the  place  of  armies,  bulwarks,  and  a  throne. 
Knowledge  and  virtue  are  not  only  power  and  hap» 
piness,  but  they  are  '^Liberty.^^ 

In  the  first  place,  knowledge  is  necessary  to  per* 
ceive  the  nature  and  value  of  literary  and  civil 
institutions.  The  half-educated  may  know  enough 
to  desire  these,  but  not  enough  to  respect  and  sus- 
tain them.  The  illiterate  cannot  see  the  nature  and 
object  of  literary  institutions,  whiich  are  to  liberate 
the  mind,  and  raise  the  intellectual  and  moral  con- 
dition of  a  nation — to  increase  the  necessaries,  and 
furnish  the  elegancies  of  life ;  and  to  let  man  feel 
and  know  the  greatness  of  his  nature. 

This  can  be  known  by  those  only,  who  have  felt 
the  power,  and  tasted  the  pleasures  of  knowledge  ; 
and  such  institutions  can  be  established  and  sustained 
by  those  onl}-  who  can  estimate  their  exalting  influ- 
ence. The  nature  and  value  of  civil  institutions,  the 
educated  will  much  better  understand  and  honour. 

A  high  degree  of  knowledge  is  requisite  to  see 
the  nature  and  necessity  of  civil  government.  Man's 
weakness  makes  society  desirable,  and  his  wicked- 
ness makes  government  necessary.  This  govern- 
ment he  supports  to  protect  his  life,  his  property, 
and  his  natural  rights.  The  great  object  of  govern- 
ment is  to  preserve  order  and  distribute  justice. 
The  intelligent  can  estimate  the  value  of  such  a 
public  check  and  judge ;  for  they  can  see  the  conse- 
quences of  the  selfishness  and  maliciousness  of  men. 

Men,  living  in  a  civil  government,  have  natural 
and  civil  rights ;  and  knowledge  becomes  necessary 
that  they  may  know  when  justice  is  administered. 

And,  in  the  first  place,  men  should  know  what 
their  rights  are ;  how  many  of  them  they  have  sur- 
rendered up  to  the  general  government,  that  they 
may  enjoy  its  protection  and  the  advantages  of  so- 
ciety; and  what  rights  they  have  retained,  and  of 
which  nothing  should  deprive  them. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  259 

Having  learned  their  rights,  they  should  know 
whether  or  not  they  were  respected  by  their  rulers. 
When  there  is  fraud  and  injustice  on  the  part  of 
those  who  govern,  the  governed  should  be  intelli- 
gent enough  to  know  it,  and  able  to  defend  them- 
selves. The  natural  love  of  power,  and  the  extreme 
selfishness  of  man,  should  excite  him  for  preparation 
to  judge  of  those  who  are  in  office,  and  have  the  op- 
portunity of  gratifying  these  oppressive  principles. 

Respect  and  obedience  are  due  to  those  in  office,  for 
they  are  the  guardians  and  ministers  of  that  govern- 
ment which  has  been  established  for  the  promotion 
of  human  happiness.  But  corru|)t  rulers  may  forfeit 
their  claims  by  personal  wickedness  and  public  in- 
justice;  and  if  this  should  take  place,  the  public 
should  be  able  to  perceive  it,  and  stop  the  abuses 
before  their  liberties  are  in  danger. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  half-educated  know  not 
when  their  government  is  well  administered.  They 
are  discontented  and  clamorous  when  they  have 
their  rights,  and  all  the  blessings  of  a  well-ordered 
administration.  They  know  not  the  value  of  the 
privileges  they  enjoy,  and  are  always  ready  for  a 
change  in  their  rulers.  They  see  not  the  excel- 
lences of  their  civil  institutions,  and  do  not  feel 
respect  enough  for  them  to  preserve  them. 

In  a  government  where  the  people  not  only  make 
the  laws,  but  select  those  who  are  to  administer  them, 
there  is  the  most  imperious  necessity  for  high  intel- 
ligence and  moral  worth  in  every  individual.  The 
people  should  well  understand  their  government, 
and  be  qualified  to  know  that  it  is  ably  and  justly 
administered ;  or  whether  it  is  not  made  the  instru- 
ment of  gratifying  the  ambition  of  the  few,  and  of 
destroying  the  rights  and  of  oppressing  the  many. 

The  people  should  be  educated  to  know  whether 
or  not  they  are  restrained  by  any  law  which  does 
not  conduce  to  the  greatest  private  and  general  good. 


260  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

The  people  may  see  evils,  but  they  ought  to  be  able 
to  take  that  general  view  of  the  whole  which  would 
show  them  advantages  (if  there  were  such)  which 
more  than  overbalance  these  evils. 

In  this  government,  justice  is  very  often  admi- 
nistered by  a  jury :  and  as  this  jury  is  taken  from 
among  the  people,  all  should  prepare  themselves  for 
being  called  upon  to  apply  the  law,  and  judge  of  the 
rights  of  their  fellow-men.  In  the  inferior  courts 
of  justice,  the  people  are  the  judicial  as  well  as  the 
legislative  part  of  the  government.  These  important 
offices  demand  intelligence  in  every  citizen.  When 
those  who  are  to  be  chosen  for  jurors  are  known  to 
be  ignorant  or  corrupt,  dishonest  individuals  will 
claim  the  rights  of  others,  and  hope,  through  the 
known  imperfection  of  the  jury,  to  obtain  those  un- 
just demands  which  they  are  certain  that  right  and 
the  law  would  deny  them. 

Thus,  the  ignorance  of  men  may  be  the  loss  of 
their  rights,  when  they  themselves  are  to  be  judges. 
It  is  desirable,  too,  that  there  should  be  general  in- 
telligence to  ensure  uniformity  in  jury  decisions; 
for  nothing  excites  a  spirit  of  litigation  more  than 
uncertainty.  When  men  differ,  they  should  see  the 
certainty  of  the  decisions  of  the  law.  Again,  the 
laws  were  made  to  keep  men  honest.  If  they  are 
disposed  not  to  be  so,  the  law  may  compel  them. 

It  hence  becomes  necessary  to  know  when  we 
should  ask  assistance  from  the  laws,  or,  in  other 
words,  when  litigation  is  necessary  and  justifiable. 
To  judge  correctly  in  this,  we  must  know  what  our 
rights  are,  and  how  far  the  law  may  assist  us  in  se- 
curing them  ;  and  this  presupposes  general  informa- 
tion, obtained  only  by  much  study  and  reading; 
but  which  all  may  get  if  they  will  avail  themselves 
of  all  the  means  of  knowledge  which  may  be  ob- 
tained 

Knowledge  is  necessary,  to  see  the  effect  of  crime, 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  261 

and  the  justice  of  punishment.  The  natural  and 
certain  effect  of  crime,  if  it  is  not  prevented,  is  to 
subvert  human  government,  and  to  destroy  the  peace 
and  happiness  of  society.  Men  live  together,  be- 
cause society  increases  their  comforts,  but  the  effect 
of  crimes  would  soon  prevent  all  these  advantages, 
and  make  a  solitary  life  preferable  to  a  social  one. 

The  full  extent  of  the  injury  of  crimes  is  seldom 
seen,  especially  by  the  illiterate  and  unthinking 
class.  The  particular  injury  may  be  seen  or  felt ; 
but  the  general  injury,  the  effect  particular  crimes 
have  upon  the  whole  community,  is  not  so  readily 
seen.  The  general  effect,  however,  often  becomes 
the  greatest  injury,  and  men  should  be  able  to  trace 
the  destructive  influence  of  crime  through  all  its 
relations. 

The  mischiefs  of  perjury  in  all  their  bearings  are 
seen  but  by  few.  Men  are  obliged  to  put  trust  in 
each  other's  testimony ;  all  judicial  redresses  pro- 
ceed on  the  belief  that  men  will  tell  the  truth.  Con- 
sequently, a  man  that  speaks  falsely  may  deprive 
an  honest  man  of  his  property,  his  reputation,  and 
his  life. 

A  false  witness  may  do  this  great  wickedness 
and  not  be  discovered  ;  thus  it  is  evident  that  perjury 
would  cause  the  greatest  injustice  and  cruelty  in 
adjusting  the  affairs  of  men,  or  bring  such  distrust 
in  what  men  said,  that  we  should  be  unable  to  know 
the  truth  of  any  thing  we  did  not  see.  When  we 
reflect  on  all  of  these  mischiefs,  we  shall  see  some- 
thing of  the  extent  of  the  injury  which  is  produced 
by  one  of  the  crimes  that  men  have  to  meet  with  in 
society. 

Let  the  crime  of  taking  what  does  not  belong  to 
us  be  considered  a  moment.  The  effect  of  this  is, 
to  take  away  all  security  of  property.  If  this  was 
done,  men  would  secure  nothing  more  than  the  pre- 
sent enjoyment.     The  future  would  be  unprovided 


262  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

for ;  provision  for  private  and  public  conveniences 
would  not  be  made  ;  nor  would  there  be  any  thing 
laid  by  for  the  wants  of  sickness  and  decrepit  age ; 
for  there  would  be  no  certainty  that  we  should  re- 
tain it. 

Thus  the  effect  of  stealing  would  be  to  turn  a 
civilized  state  into  a  savage  life.  The  whole  effect 
of  these  two  crimes  we  have  mentioned,  and  the 
effect  of  all  the  crimes  which  are  committed,  should 
be  seen  by  every  citizen  who  values  the  blessings 
of  society.  Men  are  often  treated  with  respect  who 
are  known  to  be  guilty  of  injustice;  but  if  men 
would  see  the  bad  influence  of  the  example  of  such, 
and  all  the  evils  of  their  crimes,  they  would  not  be 
so  civil  to  the  enemy  of  their  peace  and  prosperity. 

When  the  nature  of  crime  is  understood,  the  ne- 
cessity and  justice  of  adequate  punishment  will  be 
acknowledged.  The  end  of  punishment  should  be 
the  reformation  of  the  offender  ;  and  by  his  example 
to  deter  others  from  doing  evil.  The  security  of 
life,  and  the  enjoyment  of  every  blessing  it  contains, 
are  protected  chiefly  by  the  fear  of  punishment. 
The  intelligent  know  this,  and  will  be  just  to  them- 
selves and  to  others,  but  the  ignorant  are  apt  to  sink 
the  crime  (not  seeing  its  destructive  nature,  and  the 
extent  of  its  effect)  in  commiserating  the  criminal, — 
to  think  the  punishment  too  severe  for  the  indivi- 
dual offence. 

Knowledge  is  essential  to  see  the  agreement  be- 
tween civil  and  revealed  law.  Every  man  in  so- 
ciety is  under  laws  which  command  his  obedience. 
As  a  rational  creature,  he  should  know  whether  or 
not  these  laws  are  just  and  right.  The  object  of 
civil  law  is  to  prevent  what  is  wrong,  and  to  com- 
mand what  is  right;  and  if  a  man  has  intelligence 
enough  to  know  what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong, 
from  the  nature  of  his  being,  and  the  relations  which 
he  has  to  society  and  to  government,  he  will  know 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  263 

whether  the  laws  are  perfect  or  defective,  just  or 
unjust. 

The  Creator  has  given  man  such  a  nature,  and 
placed  him  in  such  relations  to  the  beings  and  ob- 
jects on  the  earth,  that  certain  actions  promote  his 
happiness,  and  certain  others  his  unhappiness.  Hu- 
man law,  then,  should  command  such  actions,  and 
no  others,  as  promote  human  happiness ;  that  is, 
human  laws  should  be  based  on  divine  laws. 

Knowledge  is  necessary,  likewise,  to  see  the 
7ieccssity  of  obeying  the  laws.  Obedience  to  the 
laws  of  our  country  (if  they  are  just,  and  wise,  and 
well  administered,  and  all  should  know  whether 
they  are  or  not)  is  an  obligation  which  every  one  is 
under.  All  claim  the  protection  of  these  laws,  and 
all  should  obey  and  honour  them. 

They  were  made  for  the  peace  and  happiness  of 
society  and  the  prosperity  of  the  people,  and  he  who 
violates  them  must  be  an  enemy  to  the  welfare  of 
his  fellow-men.  The  fact  that  men  do  not  always 
obey  the  laws,  produces  much  anxiety,  and  distress, 
and  unnecessary  labour.  This  want  of  obedience 
occasions  a  great  share  of  the  disgrace  and  suffer- 
ing which  men  endure.  All  should  see  that,  in  the 
end,  a  full  obedience  to  the  laws  and  rulers  of  the 
land  would  bring  the  greatest  amount  of  happiness. 

We  should  also  reguLite  our  wants  and  claims  to 
the  wants  and  claims  of  others.  This  the  ignorant 
will  not  do,  for  they  know  not  what  are  their  lawful 
wants  and  just  claims.  The  avaricious  man  disre- 
gards the  rights  of  others,  and  does  not  regulate  his 
desires  of  getting  to  his  present,  and  what  he  has 
reason  to  believe  will  be  his  future  wants.  By  this 
means  he  makes  himself  unhappy,  and  his  fellow- 
beings  miserable.  We  should  know  that  all  are  by 
nature  equal ;  that  is,  that  all  who  are  honest  and 
industrious  have  equal  claims  to  all  the  blessings 
which  are  offered  in  their  condition  and  circum- 


264  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

stances.  And  knowing  what  is  right,  it  should  be 
our  desire  and  effort  to  do  it. 

Knowledge  is  necessary  to  see  the  wants  of  sO' 
ciety  for  professional  vien,  such  as  ministers,  law- 
yers, and  physicians.  The  ignorant  are  prone  to 
imagine  that  these  men  live  at  their  leisure,  and  on 
the  produce  of  the  labouring  classes.  They  suppose 
them  drones  in  society,  who  consume  the  best  of 
the  good  things  of  life  without  producing  any  thing ;. 
and  that  mankind  would  be  much  better  off  if  the 
professional  classes  were  unknown. 

The  illiterate  see  not  that  men  are  ignorant  and 
wicked,  and  that  they  need  some  one  to  make  them 
wiser  and  better ;  that  the  flesh  is  heir  to  ills  which 
require  the  most  skilful  treatment;  and  that  the  ad- 
vantages  which  men  try  to  take  of  each  other  require 
laws,  and  men  to  explain  and  apply  them.  They 
see  not  that  their  souls,  health,  and  reputation  are 
worth  more  than  silver  or  gold.  It  is  true  that 
some  professional  men  are  indolent  and  dishonest  \ 
so,  likewise,  are  some  from  the  labouring  classes. 

The  fact  that  there  are  such  men,  makes  a  greater 
necessity  for  general  intelligence,  that  no  one  may 
be  imposed  upon.  If  there  are  men  who  are  dis- 
posed to  make  a  bad  use  of  their  superior  privileges 
and  education,  others  should  know  enough  to  pre- 
vent them.  The  intelligent  will  perceive  that  the 
peace  and  happiness  of  society  require  skilful  physi- 
cians, honest  lawyers,  and  faithful  divines ;  and,  see- 
ing this,  they  will  feel  disposed  to  give  such  that 
reward  and  respect  which  their  merit  claims. 

At  the  present  day,  how  great  is  the  demand  for 
knowledge,  that  men  may  not  be  deceived  by  the 
errors  of  the  press.  The  papers  and  periodicals 
which  flood  the  land  in  almost  every  form,  are  fre- 
quently striving  to  make  the  "worse  appear  the 
better  reason,"  and  the  rogue  the  better  man.     Their 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  265 

intention,  very  often,  is  to  deceive,  and  cause  the 
people  to  believe  a  lie. 

O  how  much  discrimination,  how  much  general 
information,  and  how  much  strength  of  mind  does 
it  require,  to  sift  out  the  little  truth  that  is  infused 
into  so  much  falsehood  !  Who  can  know  what  to 
believe  unless  he  possesses  a  cultivated  mind  to  per- 
ceive internal  evidence,  or  the  natural  probabilities 
of  the  thing  represented.  The  parties  make  their 
leader,  their  favourite,  a  perfect  man  ;  and  the  leader 
of  an  opposing  party  one  that  wants  every  thing 
that  an  honest  man  should  have,  and  possessing  all 
those  qualities  of  which  an  honest  man  should  not 
have  one. 

The  constituents  cannot  be  personally  acquainted 
with  the  candidates,  and  of  course  must  obtain  their 
knowledge  of  them  through  the  press.  But  there 
is,  in  almost  every  case,  too  fair  a  representation  by 
friends,  and  far  too  foul  a  one  by  enemies ;  and  how 
shall  the  people  be  preserved  from  deception  ?  In 
no  other  way  but  by  becoming  intelligent,  and  by 
judging  for  themselves  ;  by  knowing  something  of 
the  history  of  the  candidate;  by  comparing,  from 
time  to  time,  the  statements  that  are  made  of  him, 
both  by  his  friends  and  enemies;  and  by  searching 
into  the  motives  of  men  when  they  speak  and 
act. 

An  intelligent  man  will  seldom  be  deceived. 
But  the  ignorant,  who  are  obliged  to  think  as  others 
have  thought  for  them,  will  always  be  liable  to  error 
and  imposition.  Where  there  is  a  free  press,  the 
people  must  be  intelligent,  or  it  will  give  power  to 
the  few,  to  take  away  the  liberties  of  the  many. 
In  many  parts  of  the  country,  the  press  is  the  sole 
agent  in  the  formation  and  publication  of  opinion ; 
and  so  long  as  there  is  corruption  in  it,  there  is  fear 
that  it  will  be  a  strong  engine  of  evil.  This  will 
certainly  be  its  influence,  unless  the  people  are  in- 

Z 


266  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

telligent  enough  to  detect  its  errors,  and  virtuous 
enough  to  be  untouched  by  its  corruption. 

"  It  would  be  easy  to  show,"  says  Dr.  Caldwell, 
"  that  under  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
a  very  limited  amount  of  school-learning,  diffused 
among  the  people,  is  calculated,  politically  speaking, 
to  injure,  rather  than  to  benefit  them.  I  allude  to 
thatdcgrce  of  attainment,  which  qualifies  them  merely 
to  read  newspapers,  and  to  understand  the  meaning 
of  what  they  contain,  without  enabling  them  to  judge 
of  its  soundness. 

"  A  people  only  thus  far  instructed,  are  in  the 
fittest  of  all  conditions  to  be  imposed  on  and  misled 
by  artful  demagogues  and  dishonest  presses.  When 
party  spirit  runs  higli,  and  the  political  passions  be- 
come inflamed,  they  are  induced,  by  intriguing  men, 
to  read  papers  only  on  one  side  of  the  question.  The 
consequence  is  plain. 

"Not  being  able  to  judge  of  the  truth  of  the  matter 
laid  before  them,  as  respects  either  the  fitness  of 
men,  or  the  tendencies  of  measures,  they  are  liable 
to  be  seduced  into  the  most  ruinous  courses.  Were 
they  unable  to  read'at  all,  or  did  they  never  see  a 
newspaper,  their  condition  would  be  less  dangerous. 

"  Demagogues  would  have  less  power  to  delude 
and  injure  them.  In  the  present  state  of  our  coun- 
try, it  is  emphatically  true,  as  relates  to  the  great 
body  of  the  people,  that,  '  a  little  learning  is  a  dan- 
gerous thing.'  The  only  remedy  for  the  evil  con- 
sists in  the  reformation  of  the  public  presses,  or, 
the  diffusion  of  more  learning,  knowledge,  and 
virtue  among  the  people. 

"  The  former,  it  is  to  be  apprehended,  is  not  soon 
to  be  looked  for.  On  the  latter  alone,  therefore, 
rest  the  fate  of  our  government  and  the  hope  of  our 
country.  Let  the  community  at  large  be  taught  to 
think  correctly  and  feel  soundly,  and  they  will  not 
only  have  a  secure  protection  against  the.  falsehood 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  267 

and  corruption  of  the  presses  ;  those  sources  of  mis- 
chief will  cease  to  be  encouraged. 

"  They  must  then  choose  between  reformation 
and  extinction.  At  the  present  moment,  some  of 
our  public  presses  are  the  arch-engines  of  evil  to  our 
country,  and  a  disgrace  to  the  human  character."* 
I  consider  entire  ignorance  as  more  dangerous  than 
partial  knowledge. 

And  lastly,  men  should  know  who  are  the  con- 
scientious and  enlightened  friends  and  supporters 
of  our  free  institutions.  It  is  obvious  to  all,  that 
many  are  seeking  places  of  power,  not  for  the  peo- 
ple's good,  but  for  their  own.  It  is  likewise  as  true, 
that  many  have  the  appearance  of  honesty  and  pa- 
triotism who  possess  neither  of  these  necessary 
qualities  in  a  public  candidate. 

How  then  shall  the  people  judge  who  are  worthy 
of  their  support  and  their  country's  honours?  How 
shall  they  be  able  to  discriminate  between  the  man 
of  worth  and  capability,  and  the  man  who  is  a  zeal- 
ous pretender,  but  who  will,  either  by  his  wicked- 
ness or  weakness,  betray  his  constituents?  How 
shall  the  people  know  who  are  the  guardians  of  the 
laws  and  constitution,  and  the  faithful  advocates  of 
their  rights?  How  shall  the  people  know  who  to 
intrust  with  their  property  and  their  liberties?  To 
all  these  questions  we  answer,  "  l)y  being  intelli- 
gent.^' 

*  A  Discourse  on  the  Advantages  of  a  National  University, 
especially  in  its  Influence  on  the  Union  of  the  United  States; 
delivered  September  25,  1832.    By  Charles  Caldwell,  M.D. 


268  DISTRICT    SCHOOL, 

SECTION  IV. 

DUTIES    WHICH    WE    OWE    TO    EACH    OTHER, 

"  Man  loves  to  commune  with  his  fellow  men  ; 
and  he  is  led  by  an  instinctive  natural  desire  to 
associate  with  his  species.  Society,  with  him,  is 
to  be  the  source  of  all  the  love  which  he  feels,  of  all 
the  love  which  he  excites,  and  therefore,  of  almost 
all  the  desires  and  enjoyments  which  he  is  capable 
of  feeling.  The  boy  hastens  to  meet  his  playmates, 
and  man  to  communicate  his  thoughts  to  man. 
*  Were  I  in  a  desert,'  says  an  eloquent  author,  '  I 
would  find  out  where  within  it  to  call  forth  my 
affections. 

"  *  If  I  could  do  no  better,  I  would  fasten  them 
on  some  sweet  myrtle,  or  seek  some  melancholy 
cypress  to  connect  myself  to ;  I  would  court  their 
shade,  and  greet  them  kindly  for  their  protection. 
I  would  cut  my  name  upon  them,  and  say  they 
were  the  loveliest  trees  throughout  the  desert.  If 
their  leaves  withered,  I  would  teach  myself  to 
mourn ;  and  when  they  rejoiced,  I  would  rejoice 
along  with  them.'  The  heart  cannot  live  alone  ;  to 
love  and  be  beloved  is  the  first  natural  desire  of  all. 

"To  society, man  owes  the  strength, the  perfection, 
and  the  happiness  of  his  nature.  In  society  are  de- 
veloped all  those  noble  faculties  which  place  man 
at  the  head  of  creation  ;  which  makes  him  at  once 
the  head,  the  heart,  and  the  tongue  of  all.  Says 
Seneca,  the  great  Roman  moralist :  *  Make  us  single 
and  solitary,  and  what  are  we  ?  The  prey  of  other 
animals,  and  their  victim — the  prey  which  would 
be  most  easy  for  them  to  seize,  the  victim  which 
would  be  most  easy  for  them  to  destroy.     Those 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  269 

other  animals  have,  in  their  own  strength,  sufficient 
protection.  If  they  be  born  to  live  apart,  each  has 
its  separate  arms  to  defend  it.' 

"Man  has  no  tusks  or  talons  to  make  him  terrible. 
He  is  weak  and  naked ;  but  weak  and  naked  as  he 
is,  society  surrounds  him  and  protects  him.  It  is 
this  which  submits  to  his  power  all  other  living 
things,  and  not  the  earth  merely,  which  seems  in 
some  measure  his  own  by  birth,  but  the  very  ocean, 
that  is  to  him  another  world  of  beings  of  a  different 
nature.  Society  averts  from  him  the  attack  of  dis- 
eases— it  mitigates  his  suffering  when  he  is  assailed 
by  them — it  gives  support  and  happiness  to  his  old 
age — it  makes  him  strong  in  the  great  combat  of 
human  life,  because  it  leaves  him  not  alone  to  strug- 
gle with  his  fortune."* 

But  however  great  and  numerous  the  blessings 
of  society  may  be,  the  social  union  does  not  take  its 
rise  from  views  of  self-interest ;  it  forms,  from  the 
constitution  of  human  nature,  a  necessary  condition 
of  man.  It  is  not  the  wants  and  necessities  of  his 
animal  being  which  create  his  social  feelings ;  for 
he  is  determined  to  society  by  his  very  nature,  by 
instinct,  and  by  innumerable  principles  which  have 
a  reference  to  his  fellow-creatures.  Man  must  have 
the  sympathy  of  man ;  he  always  wishes  to  infuse 
his  thoughts  and  feelings  into  the  minds  and  hearts 
of  others,  and  to  share  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of 
those  other  minds  and  hearts. 

There  is  scarcely  a  moment  of  our  existence  in 
which  the  social  affection  does  not  influence  our 
hopes  and  our  fears,  our  resolutions  for  the  future, 
and  our  remembrance  of  the  past.  On  the  society 
of  his  fellow-beings,  man,  as  his  Creator  has  made 
him,  is  ever  ready  to  pour  out  the  affections  of  his 
heart ;   to   society  he   is   ever   ready  to    give   the 

*  Dr.  Brown. 
/.2   • 


270  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

strength  of  his  arm,  and  the  light  of  his  mind ;  and 
to  society  he  always  flees  for  sympathy  in  his  suf- 
ferings, companionship  in  his  rejoicings,  and  aid  in 
his  necessities.  Thus,  the  all-wise  Creator  has  made 
the  gratification  of  this  social  affection  the  great 
benefactor  and  protector  of  man. 

The  God  of  nature,  who  has  made  it  delightful 
for  man  to  associate  with  his  fellow  men,  and  his 
happiness  to  be  active  in  this  association,  has  like- 
wise directed  him  how  to  act  amid  those  innumera- 
ble and  responsible  relations  which  he  sees  between 
him  and  the  fellow-beings  around  him.  These  di- 
rections or  laws  from  the  Creator  hav'e  made  human 
life  (when  it  is  worthy  of  that  name)  to  consist  in 
the  exercise  of  duties.  lie  who  lives  best,  dis- 
charges these  duties  best.  And  as  it  is  necessary 
for  all  of  us  to  be  frequently  reminded  of  our  duties, 
I  shall  now  state  a  few  of  those  which  men  owe  to 
each  other  in  society. 

And  first,  some  of  the  duties  which  come  under 
the  general  name  of  Justice.  "  The  word  justice 
denoting  that  disposition  which  leads  us,  in  cases 
where  our  own  temper,  or  passions,  or  interests  are 
concerned,  to  judge  and  to  act  without  being  biassed 
by  partial  considerations."* 

"  We  should  be  just  towards  the  property  of 
others.  This  implies  honesty  in  all  our  dealings 
with  men.  It  is  right  that  we  should  have  a  proper 
regard  for  our  own  interest;  but  in  promoting  it, 
we  should  never  interfere  with  the  interests  and 
rights  of  others.  Security  of  property  is  the  great 
incentive  to  industry,  and  the  original  cause  of 
wealth.  He  who  would  take  what  belongs  to  an- 
other, does  all  that  he  can  do  towards  destroying 
the  rich  and  populous  earth  which  we  behold,  and 
in  banishing  the  intellectual  sciences,  and  arts,  and 

♦  Dugald  Stewart. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  871 

systems  of  civil  and  moral  polity,  which  distingurish 
the  civilized  man  from  the  savage. 

"The  certainty  that  we  shall  enjoy  the  fruits  of  our 
own  labours,  is  the  first  cause  which  operates  as  the 
civilizer  of  man ;  and  he,  who,  like  the  robber, 
would  appropriate  to  himself  the  property  of  others, 
is  doing  all  that  his  hand  and  heart  can  do  in  send- 
ing man  back  to  the  condition,  the  life,  and  suffer- 
ings of  the  savage. 

"  If  there  was  not  respect  to  the  property  of 
others,  there  would  be  no  wealth  to  support,  and 
no  industry  to  be  supported  ;  no  bounty  to  cheer, 
and  no  penury  to  be  relieved ;  but  there  would  be 
one  general  penury,  and  one  common  struggle  for 
that  scanty  morsel  which  would  alone  remain  for 
the  wretched."*  We  should  not  only  abstain  from 
wresting  or  injuring  the  possessions  of  others,  but 
we  should  not  interfere  with  the  lawful  means 
which  others  may  use  for  the  acquisition  of  pro- 
perty. Justice  towards  the  property  of  others,  and 
their  lawful  means  of  acquiring  it,  then,  I  repeat,  is 
what  we  all  owe  to  each  other. 

Justice  demands  that  we  should  not  interfere 
with  \}ciQ  freedom  of  others'  actions.  This  consti- 
tutes personal  liberty.  In  civil  communities,  this 
right  may  be  restricted  w^hen  a  man  uses  his  free- 
dom to  the  injury  of  others.  But  freedom  of  acting 
should  not  be  restrained  by  unjust  laws  or  oppres- 
sive institutions.  We  should  not  prevent  the  free 
actions  of  others  by  haughtiness,  bribery,  or  lordly 
command,  but  should  leave  every  man  to  act  accord- 
ing to  his  own  native  dignity  and  free  choice,  so 
long  as  his  actions  do  not  clash  wdth  the  private  and 
public  good. 

Justice  makes  us  respect  the  character  or  repu- 
tation of  others. 

*  Dr.  Brown. 


212  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

"  Good  name  in  man  and  woman 
Is  the  immediate  jewel  ol"  their  souls. 
******* 
But  he  that  filches  from  me  my  good  name, 
Robs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him, 
Yet  makes  me  poor  indeed." 

To  take  a\vay  a  man's  character  or  reputation  is 
to  take  away  his  life  :  it  is  the  foulest,  blackest  kind 
of  murder.  JNIan  possesses  no  treasure  so  pure,  so 
dear,  so  valuable  as  a  spotless  reputation ;  and  he 
who  would  trifle  with  this  is  man's  greatest  foe. 
Evil-speaking  is  very  natural  and  very  easy  to  the 
wicked  "heart;  and  the  communications  in  this  world 
give  a  very  free  and  a  very  rapid  circulation  to  evil 
reports.  But  he  who  would  indulge  this  wicked 
propensity,  or  circulate  an  evil  report,  does  to  his 
fellow-men  the  greatest  injustice,  and  the  worst  of 
all  possible  injuries.  There  is  nothing  in  our  fel- 
low-men that  we  should  respect  with  so  much  sa- 
credness  as  their  good  name.  We  should  avoid 
every  thing  that  would  be  injurious  to  their  charac- 
ter. All  insinuations  which  might  give  rise  to  sus- 
picion or  prejudice,  and  every  tiling  that  would 
prevent  the  praise  or  credit  which  is  justly  due  to 
them.  And  where  the  individual  cannot  defend 
himself,  w^e  should  counteract  every  thing  that 
would  be  to  his  injury. 

Justice  requires  us  to  exorcise  fairness  inform- 
ing our  opinion  of  others.  There  is  much  less 
criminal  intention  in  the  world  than  is  commonly 
supposed  ;  and  it  is  our  duty  to  estimate  the  conduct 
and  motives  of  others  with  calmness  and  impartiality. 
We  should  make  full  allowance  for  the  circumstances 
and  feelings  of  others.  We  should  not  be  willing 
to  ascribe  bad  motives  to  men,  nor  to  condemn  them 
before  they  are  proved  to  be  dishonest.  It  is  natural 
to  ascribe  good  motives  to  our  bad  actions,  and  bad 
motives  to  the  good  actions  of  others.     We  should 


Dift'RICT    SCHOOL.  273 

guard  against  this  selfish  principle,  and  this  want 
of  fairness  and  liberality  to  our  fellow-men.  We 
should  always  form  good  opinions  of  men,  until 
their  actions  compel  us  to  do  otherwise. 

It  is  unjust  to  form  our  opinions  of  men  from 
imperfect  acquaintance  or  partial  considerations; 
yet  men  are  very  liable  to  do  so.  An  opinion 
should  not  be  formed  or  published  until  there  is  a 
full  understanding  of  the  person  and  the  subject  in 
question ;  yet  so  ready  are  men  to  relate  whatever 
has  been  told  to  them ;  and  so  much  readier  are 
they  to  inquire  what  is  said  than  what  is  t7me^  that 
there  is  very  apt  to  be  a  want  of  fairness  in  the  exa- 
mination of  the  truth  of  what  is  uttered.  This  dis- 
position should  make  us  cautious  in  receiving  or 
circulating  any  thing  which  may  injure  others. 

Justice  is  to  be  exercised  i7i  judging  of  the  statt' 
merits  of  others.  "  This  constitutes  candour.  We 
are  to  give  a  candid,  deliberate  hearing  to  the  opi- 
nions, arguments,  and  statements  of  others  ;  estimat- 
ing fairly  and  honestly  their  weight  and  influence. 
This  state  of  mind  is  opposed  to  prejudice,  bigotry, 
self-love  for  our  own  opinion,  attachment  to  precon- 
ceived opinions,  and  a  narrow  disputatious  spirit."* 

In  stating  any  thing,  men  are  apt  to  take  from,  or 
add  to,  whatever  they  may  have  heard ;  to  give  it 
a  diiferent  colouring,  or  a  different  appearance  from 
what  they  know  to  be  the  true  state  of  the  case. 
Men  are  apt,  likewise,  to  draw  conclusions  which 
do  not  follow  from  the  facts  and  premises  which 
they  have  judged  from.  To  all  this  unfairness  in 
judo;ing  of  the  statements  of  others,  candour  is  di- 
rectly opposed ;  and  he  who  wishes  to  represent 
others  as  he  would  wish  to  be  represented,  will  often 
examine  himself  to  see  if  he  has  not  something  of 
this  deceptive  spirit. 

*  Dr.  Abercrombie. 


274  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

Justice  enjoins  us  to  respect  the  feelings  and  af- 
fections of  others.  "  We  may  do  great  injury  to 
the  feelings  of  others  without  hurting  their  interest 
or  their  reputation.  There  are  minds  of  extreme 
delicacy,  which  we  may  deeply  wound,  either  by 
roughness  or  grossness  of  manner,  or  by  overbear- 
ing haughtiness  and  undue  severity.  Towards  sen- 
sitive persons  like  these,  we  should  behave  with 
the  utnost  tenderness. 

'*  Wc  should  never  ruffle  the  tranquil  mind,  nor 
disturb  tliat  equanimity  of  temper  so  necessary  to  a 
clear  perception  of  truth  and  the  happiness  of  the 
individual.  And  he  who  robs  one  of  the  affections 
of  another,  is  the  greatest  pilferer  that  moves  above 
the  earth.  The  affections  of  others  are  the  most 
precious  possessions  which  man  can  have;  and  if 
the  guilt  of  the  robber  is  in  proportion  to  the  evil 
he  does,  who  is  there  so  guilty,  so  base,  as  that  man 
who  steals  not  only  the  affections,  but  also  the  capa- 
city of  feeling  affection  and  confidence  again. 

"  He  who  would  corrupt  or  lessen  that  remaining 
affection  and  love  which  men  still  have  for  each 
other,  and  which  makes  the  earth  still  a  paradise 
wherever  they  exist,  does  all  that  he  can  to  equal 
the  malignity  and  wickedness  of  the  first  great 
tempter  of  the  human  race."* 

Justice  demands  that  we  should  be  impartial  in 
estimating  the  talents  o^  others.  Man  is  prone  to 
detract  from  the  reputation  of  others  that  he  may 
advance  his.  own.  Perhaps  there  is  no  principle 
more  deeply  rooted  in  the  human  mind  than  the 
love  of  fame  and  distinction  ;  and  if  this  principle 
is  properly  regulated,  there  is  no  one  more  subser- 
vient to  valuable  purposes. 

But  it  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  principles  to  re- 
strain within  the  bounds  of  moderation.     Our  ambi- 

*  Dr.  Brown. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  275 

tion  and  self-partiality  prevent  us  from  attending  to 
the  merits  of  others,  and  we  are  blind  or  ill-disposed 
towards  those  talents  and  excellences  which  eclipse 
our  own.  Of  this  truth,  he  who  will  attend  to  the 
operations  of  his  own  mind  will  be  fully  satisfied. 

How  necessary  is  it,  then,  that  we  should  guard 
against  that  envious  spirit  which  would  prevent  us 
from  appreciating  and  honouring  the  genius  and 
abilities  of  others.  We  should  always  be  ready  to 
see  beauties  and,applaud  excellences,  and  to  give  the 
tribute  of  honour  wherever  honour  is  due. 

Justice  demands  that  we  should  not  injure  the 
moral  jyriiiciples  of  others.  "  He  who  would 
knowingly  corrupt  the  virtue  or  the  moral  prin- 
ciples of  another,  either  by  specious  argument,  seduc- 
tion, or  vicious  example,  must  possess  a  character 
of  the  deepest  malignity.  These  offences  come 
under  no  human  law  ;  the  morality  and  good-will 
of  man  is  the  only  restraint  over  them. 

"  And  he  who  wilfully  lessens  a  single  virtue  in 
the  heart  of  another,  or  introduces  into  it  a  single 
vice,  or  increases  the  power  of  any  guilty  passion,"* 
is  an  enemy  to  the  peace  of  society,  the  happiness 
of  man,  and  the  government  of  his  Creator.  To 
unhinge  the  moral  principles  of  another,  in  any  way 
whatever,  is  to  do  the  w^orst  deed  which  man  does 
to  his  fellow-men.  Yet  how  ready  are  some  men 
to  ridicule  religion,  to  sneer  at  morality,  and  to 
mock  at  every  religious  expression  and  sentiment 
of  the  heart. 

To  such  we  would  say,  if  you  have  no  fear  of 
human  depravity  unchecked,  no  fear  of  human  ordi- 
nances, or  no  fear  of  the  laws  of  God,  yet  we  beseech 
you  have  some  benevolence  to  your  fellow-men. 
Do  not  use  your  wickedness  and  malice  by  leaguing 
with  the  arch-destroyer  of  man,  in  making  the  world 

*  Dr.  Brown. 


276  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

worse  than  it  now  is.  Have  some  regard  to  the* 
sensitive,  immortal  beings  around  you ;  and  if  you 
have  made  up  your  minds  to  become  abandoned  in 
principle  and  depraved  in  practice,  we  still  entreat 
you  not  to  seek  to  contaminate  others. 

"  How  guilty  must  be  that  writer,  whose  works 
have  contributed  to  violate  the  principles  of  truth 
and  rectitude ;  to  pollute  the  imagination  or  corrupt 
the  heart !  Yet  this  destroyer  of  moml  being  often 
goes  through  the  scene  of  destruction  unmolested, 
perhaps  honoured,  as  if  no  power  could  reach  the 
measure  of  his  guilt  but  the  hand  of  the  Eternal. 
There  is  another  extensive  species  of  corruption 
which  arises  from  profligate  example. 

When  the  gray-headed  veteran  of  debaucheries, 
having  led  a  long  life  of  unceasing  excess  in  all  that 
is  gross  and  depraved,  collects  around  him  liis  band 
of  youthful  disciples,  and  relates  to  them  the  tales 
of  merriment  and  obscenity,  and  watches  the  vicious 
passions  which  need  to  be  strengthened,  he  presents 
an  example  the  results  of  which  no  one  can  estimate. 
Surely,  if  there  be  a  being  on  this  earth  whom  we 
have  permission  to  hate,  with  full  and  absolute  de- 
testation, it  is  a  human  demon  like  this.  How  cir- 
cumspect should  we  be,  that  we  may  in  no  way 
whatever  be  the  cause  of  injuring  the  moral  princi- 
ples of  others  !'^* 

•  Another  social  duty  which  we  owe  to  each  other 
is  that  of  Veracity.  The  happiness  which  we  de- 
rive from  intercourse  with  men,  from  the  advance- 
ment and  diffusion  of  knowledge,  from  the  teachings 
of  philosophy,  and  the  experience  of  history,  depends 
upon  the  fidelity  and  scrupulous  accuracy  with  which 
we  adhere  to  the  natural,  instinctive  principle  of 
veracity.  Openness,  sincerity,  and  truth  not  only 
promote  our  highest  interest,  but  have  an  engaging, 

*  Dr.  Brown. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  277 

beautiful  appearance  wherever  they  are  found. 
Truth  is  the  native  suggestion  of  the  heart,  and  is 
always  uttered,  unless  there  are  solicitations  to  false- 
hood too  strong  for  the  natural  principle. 

Children  always  put  implicit  confidence  in  the 
statements  of  others,  until  experience  teaches  them 
the  lesson  of  caution  ;  and  after  all  our  lessons  of 
equivocation,  duplicity,  and  falsehood,  there  is  more 
belief  than  veracity  in  the  world.  Although  the 
existence  and  happiness  of  society  depend  upon  the 
fidelity  with  which  men  ascertain  and  relate  the 
truth,  although  there  is  so  much  that  is  pleasing  and 
attractive  in  truth,  and  although  it  is  the  natural, 
spontaneous  effusion  of  the  heart,  still  there  is  so 
much  insincerity,  pride,  ambition,  and  avarice  in 
the  heart  of  man,  that  he  finds  strong  solicitations 
to  depart  from  that  fidelity  of  purpose,  that  scrupu- 
lous accuracy  of  statement  which  he  knows  is  due 
to  his  fellow-citizens. 

The  duty  of  veracity  should  make  men  faithful 
and  critical  in  ascertaining  facts.  There  is  so 
much  credulity  in  man,  that  he  is  apt  to  believe 
without  proper  examination.  (I  except  the  subject 
of  Christianity,  for  here  the  want  of  examination  is 
the  cause  of  unbelief)  In  the  affairs  of  life,  we  are 
disposed  to  draw  general  conclusions  from  a  few 
particular  facts,  to  judge  of  a  whole  body  of  men 
from  a  knowledge  of  a  few  individuals,  and  to  pass 
sentence  upon  an  individual  from  knowing  some 
one  of  his  opinions,  or  from  hearing  of  a  few  facts 
in  the  history  of  his  life. 

There  is  too  strong  an  inclination  to  generalize 
and  jump  to  conclusions.  This  makes  man  impatient 
and  unfaithful  in  his  investigations,  and  superficial 
in  his  information.  He  cannot  expect  to  tell  the 
truth,  if  he  has  not  correctly  and  fully  informed 
himself.  He  cannot  be  a  man  of  veracity,  however 
2  A 


278  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

well  disposed  he  may  be,  unless  he  is  critical  and 
faithful  in  his  reception  of  facts. 

We  should,  likewise,  be  scrupulous  in  stating 
facts.  They  may  be  stated  correctly,  and  yet  give 
a  false  impression.  The  truth  may  be  told,  and  yet 
a  part  of  it  withheld.  A  fact  may  be  stated  with- 
out the  circumstances  under  which  it  occurred. 
There  are  many  ways  of  deceiving,  either  by  looks, 
or  voice,  or  gesture,  or  suppression,  or  high  colour- 
ing, and  yet,  so  far  as  respects  the  prominent  facts 
in  the  case,  there  may  be  no  departure  from  truth. 
Much  watchfulness  and  sincerity  will  be  necessary 
to  give  us  an  honest,  scrupulous  narration. 

The  third  consideration  in  the  love  and  practice 
of  truth  is  fait/ifutness  in  the  fulfilment  of  pro- 
mises. This  is  opposed  to  actual  departure  from 
what  was  distinctly  promised ;  likewise  to  all  those 
encouragements  which  one  may  give  another  with- 
out the  intention  of  meeting  them.  A  straight- 
forward integrity  carefully  and  conscientiously  per- 
forms every  promise,  and  fulfils  every  engagement, 
although  the  performance  or  fulfilment  is  attended 
with  a  high  sacrifice  of  feeling  and  interest. 

I  know"  of  nothing  that  causes  so  much  incon- 
venience and  derangement  in  the  business  of  life, 
that  stops  the  exercise  of  so  much  benevolence,  that 
makes  truth  and  reality  so  powerless,  as  the  depart- 
ures which  men  make  from  strict  veracity.  Let  us, 
then,  in  all  our  intercourse,  be  careful  to  fulfil  this 
duty  to  each  other. 

"  The  duties  which  have  been  consider^,  may  be 
termed  negative  duties,  which  cause  us  to  abstain 
from  the  injury  of  others.  Those  which  are  yet  to 
be  considered,  may  be  called  positive  duties,  coming 
under  the  general  term  Benevolence.  These  consist 
in  being  active  in  doing  good  to  our  fellow-men.^'* 

*  Dr.  Brown. 


DISTRICT   SCHOOL.  279 

And  how  touching  and  eloquent  are  the  pleadings 
of  the  wants  and  ills  of  man  !  Wherever  men  are 
found,  there  man  sees  and  hears  invitations  to  do 
good,  the  most  tender  and  the  most  persuasive. 

There  is  nothing  that  calls  upon  man's  activity 
with  so  much  justice,  so  much  earnestness,  and  with 
such  high,  heavenly  claims,  as  the  destitute,  diseased 
condition  of  man,  and  the  susceptibility  of  his  nature 
for  increased  happiness.  The  world  is  ignorant,  and 
wants  instruction — in  doubt,  and  asks  for  counsel — 
it  is  sick,  and  wishes  and  needs  health — huntrry  and 
naked,  and  asks  for  food  and  clothing.  Wherever 
man  meets  man,  there  benevolence  is  asked  and 
required. 

It  is  our  duty  to  administer  to  each  other's  per- 
sonal necessities.  The  rich  are  dependent  on  the 
poor,  and  the  poor  upon  the  rich.  Some  have  more 
than  they  want,  and  others  want  more  than  they 
have.  There  is  bounty  to  relieve,  and  penury  to  be 
relieved — there  is  the  exercise  of  generosity  for 
some,  and  the  exercise  of  gratitude  for  others.  There 
are  some  who  are  "nobly  maimed,"  some  are  un- 
fortunate, and  others  whose  woes  make  men  forget 
their  vices :  all  these  are  brothers  of  the  human 
family,  and  ask  our  benevolence  for  the  necessaries 
of  man.  These  petitions  should  be  heard,  and  if 
there  is  ability,  cheerfully  granted. 

Our  benevolence  should  be  eager  to  relieve  per- 
sonal suffering.  This  we  may  do  by  erecting  hos- 
pitals and  asylums,  by  visiting  and  administering  to 
the  sick,./ind  by  sending  to  the  disabled  the  comforts 
of  life.  Whenever  a  fellow-being  is  in  pain  or  de- 
spondency, we  should  be  disposed  to  relieve  and  to 
cheer.  The  supplications  of  the  sick  and  the  sor- 
rowful should  be  heard  and  answered,  as  well  as  the 
invitations  of  the  gay  and  the  happy. 

We  should  sympathize  with  the  sufferer  as  well 
as  rejoice  with  the  prosperous.     It  is  as  much,  or 


280  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

more,  our  duty  to  relieve  personal  pain,  as  it  is  to 
add  to  personal  pleasure.  Benevolence  can  make 
the  world  much  happier  by  supplying  the  wants  of 
the  necessitous,  and  relieving  the  sufTerings  of  the 
diseased,  than  it  can  by  giving  comforts  to  the 
comfortable  ;  yet  the  most  of  our  benevolence  is  apt 
to  expend  itself  in  sympathy  with  those  who  would 
be  happy  without  it. 

Prosperity  always  owes  a  duty  to  adversity  ;  the 
fortunate  should  regard  the  unfortunate ;  and  the 
virtuous  should  pity  the  vicious.  Benevolence 
should  be  the  great  moral  link  which  unites  man  to 
man  ;  and  it  should  be  our  business  to  visit  the  lonely 
and  the  neglected,  to  comfort  the  distressed,  and  to 
counsel  the  weak  and  the  wavering. 

It  is  our  duty  to  attend  to  the  education  and  in- 
striiction  of  others.  "The  virtue  of  mankind,  and 
the  knowledge  which  invigorates  that  virtue  and 
renders  it  more  surely  useful,  are  the  greatest  objects 
which  benevolence  can  have  in  view."*  To  instruct 
the  ignorant  in  useful  knowledge  is  to  do  the  greatest 
good  that  man  is  privileged  to  confer. 

There  is  no  benevolence  so  exalted,  so  useful,  so 
heavenly,  as  that  which  pours  mental  and  moral  light 
into  the  rational,  immortal  mind.  To  give  the 
ignorant  an  education  is  the  only  way  that  we  can 
give  them  the  power  of  fulfilling  the  object  of  their 
being.  This  divine  benevolence,  all  who  have  had 
an  education  are  permitted  and  required  to  exercise. 

We  may  instruct  by  founding  and  endowing  lite- 
rary institutions  ;  by  petitioning  for  or  enacting  laws 
which  encourage  a  sound  universal  education  ;  by 
instructing  those  who  make  teaching  their  profession; 
by  ascertaining  the  amount  and  means  of  education 
among  the  ivhole  people  ;  by  improving  the  condi- 
tion of  the  schools,  and  by  imparting  useful  informa- 
tion wherever  we  meet  with  mind. 
*  Dr.  Brown. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  281 

Man  was  put  into  society  to  love  and  enlighten 
man  ;  and  when  he  does  this  duty,  he  feels  a  pleasure 
which  is  purer  and  higher  than  any  other.  To  know 
our  duty  to  ourselves,  to  our  fellow-men,  and  to  our 
Creator,  is  the  duty  of  all ;  and  having  known,  it  is 
our  duty  to  give  this  knowledge  to  every  human 
being. 

It  is  our  duty  to  make  men  moral.  And  to  make 
them  moral  is  not  only  to  make  them  refrain  from 
the  grosser  vices  of  men  and  to  do  their  duty  to  their 
neighbours,  but  likewise  to  persuade  them  to  love 
and  obey  their  Creator.  To  raise  the  moral  condi- 
tion of  man  by  instructing  the  ignorant,  by  rescuing 
the  unwary,  and  by  reclaiming  the  vicious,  implies 
the  highest  species  of  useful  benevolence. 

But  we  cannot  make  man  happy  by  giving  him 
honours,  possessions,  or  pleasures  ;  if  we  make  him 
happy  we  must  make  him  moral.  And  we  cannot 
make  men  moral  by  merely  making  them  polite  and 
learned  ;  but  we  take  the  proper  means  to  do  this 
when  we  give  them  that  Word  which  is  truth,  and 
which  sanctifies  men.  Therefore,  to  improve  the 
moral  condition  of  men  is  to  make  them  sober,  en- 
lightened Christians.  Any  thing  short  of  this  is  but 
little  else  than  a  change  from  one  vice  to  another. 
Our  benevolence,  then,  in  raising  the  moral  condi- 
tion of  man,  should  be  exercised  in  leaking  him 
understand,  believe,  and  practise  the  truths  of  the 
Bible. 

A  fixed,  settled  benevolence  disposes  us  at  all 
times  to  be  agreeable  to  our  fellow-men.  "There 
are  many  who  are  not  deficient  in  what  we  usually 
call  deeds  of  benevolence,  yet  who  are  still  very  apt 
to  forget  that  a  most  important  exercise  of  true 
benevolence  consists  in  the  habitual  cultivation  and 
practice  of  courtesy,  gentleness,  and  kindness  ;  and 
that  these  dispositions  often  increase  the  comforts 
2  A  2 


582  DISTRICT   SCHOOL. 

and  happiness  of  others  to  a  greater  degree  than  any 
actual  deeds  of  beneficence."* 

This  "benevolence  in  trifles"  is  something  that 
We  as  a  people  do  not  yet  very  well  understand  ;  yet 
the  greater  part  of  the  happiness  of  life  consists  in 
those  little  attentions,  those  "minor  decencies" 
which  cost  us  no  trouble  or  money,  but  which  we, 
from  selfishness  or  sturdy  independence,  are  very 
much  disposed  to  overlook.  To  make  others  happy 
by  conforming  our  feelings  to  theirs,  by  taking  an 
interest  in  the  worthy  objects  of  their  pursuit,  and 
by  entering  into  their  plans  and  opinions,  is  a  sym- 
pathy we  all  desire,  and  a  benevolence  we  all  owe. 
He  that  does  this  exercises  no  small  virtue.  To 
make  ourselves  agreeable  by  flattery,  or  by  pamper- 
ing vicious  appetites,  is  detestable ;  it  is  to  make 
ourselves  wholly  unworthy  of  esteem  or  friendship. 

But  to  make  ourselves  agreeable  by  imparting 
innocent  amusement  or  useful  knowledge,  by  in- 
creasing the  general  happiness  and  good-will  of  the 
company,  or  by  sharing  the  sorrow^s  and  sufferings 
of  others,  is  a  benevolent  tribute  which  we  all  owe 
to  those  we  meet  with.  Whenever  we  meet  with 
our  fellow-men,  we  should  always  desire,  and  do  all 
in  our  power  to  make  them  happier  and  better. 

And,  lasthr,  in  all  our  intercourse  with  men  we 
should  endflps^our  to  make  peace.  This  becomes, 
in  a  world  that  is  quick  to  take  offence  and  slow  to 
forgive  it,  a  very  important  duty.  To  be  a  peace- 
maker where  there  are  constant  provocations  and 
systematic  injustice,  met  as  constantly  by  unrelent- 
ing resentment  and  revenge,  is  one  of  the  most 
honourable,  charitable,  and  heavenly  capacities  that 
men  can  ever  act  in. 

He  who  allays  strife,  calms  the  passionate,  and 
soothes   excitement,  is,  indeed,   a  welcome   and  a 

*  Dugald  Stewart, 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  283 

blessefl  mediator  between  man  and  man.  As  we 
have  already  said,  there  is  much  less  criminal  inten- 
tion in  the  world  than  is  generally  imagined — the 
most  of  the  differences  among  men  arising  from  mis- 
understanding and  misrepresentation ;  and  hence  it 
becomes  us  to  put  the  best  possible  construction  upon 
the  actions  of  others,  and  not  to  judge  hastily  or 
report  unfavourably. 

We  should  discountenance  all  insinuations,  and 
strive  to  make  the  parties  better  understood  by  each 
other.  We  should  avoid  every  thing  that  would 
injure  the  feelings  or  the  friendship  of  others.  We 
should  endeavour  to  destroy  prejudice,  abate  ani- 
mosity, and  to  establish  a  friendly,  social  intercourse 
among  all  men. 

He  who  adds  one  emotion  of  love  more  to  the 
world,  or  takes  away  from  it  one  of  hatred,  is  a 
benefactor  to  man.  He  who  makes  friendship 
where  there  was  enmity,  kindness  where  there  was 
a  disposition  to  injure,  and  gratitude  where  there 
was  suspicion,  may  truly  be  said  "to  go  about  doing 
good."  "Blessed  are  the  peace-makers,  for  they 
shall  be  called  the  children  of  God." 


SECTION  V. 

PATRIOTIC    DUTIES    TO    OUR    COUNTni. 

"In  an  extensive  and  populous  country,  the  in- 
Stmctive  affection  of  patriotism  is  apt  to  grow  lan- 
guid among  the  mass  of  the  people,  and  therefore 
it  becomes  the  more  necessary  to  impress  on  their 
minds  those  considerations  of  reason  and  duty 


284  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

which  recommend  public  spirit  as  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal branches  of  morality."* 

There  is  a  foundation  laid  in  nature  for  distinct 
communities.  Moimtains,  oceans,  and  continents 
create  natural  divisions;  and  the  diversity  of  lan- 
guages, customs,  manners,  and  products  unite  with 
these  natural  divisions  to  separate  tribes  and  nations 
from  each  other.  These  causes  always  separate 
men  during  the  earlier  ages  of  society,  but  their 
effect  becomes  less  and  less  as  society  advances,  and 
reason  improves. 

The  prejudices  which  arise  among  different  na- 
tions, from  arbitrary  signs  and  ceremonies,  may  be  ne- 
cessary, during  the  infancy  of  reason,  to  maintain  or- 
der, and  to  form  the  people  into  united  governments. 
But  when  the  mind  becomes  more  mature,  and  can 
look  beyond  the  sign  and  the  ceremony,  these  bar- 
riers of  affection  and  free  intercourse  are  seen  to  be 
but  useless  trifles,  and  will  gradually  disappear. 

The  strong  tendency  of  reason  and  affection  to 
unite  every  people  and  nation,  shows  us  that  the 
principles  of  disunion  (for  patriotism  implies  a  sepa- 
ration) are  not  malign  and  original  in  the  human 
heart.  While  we  love  the  land  of  our  birth,  and 
defend  the  government  that  protects  us,  we  may 
still  wish  the  prosperity  of  every  other  land,  and 
the  perfection  of  every  other  government.  Duties 
to  our  countrymen,  and  to  the  laws  of  our  country, 
do  not  imply  ill-will  to  others. 

"  Men  may  be  enthusiastic,  and  even  selfish,  in 
loving  their  country.  To  love  the  land  of  our  fa- 
thers, and  the  land  of  our  birth,  is  natural  to  all,  and 
the  duty  of  all.  To  love  and  venerate  the  great 
names  and  the  great  deeds  recorded  in  the  history 
of  our  country,  is  a  patriotic  duty  which  every 
American   youth   rejoices  to  perform.     In  loving 

♦=  Dugald  Stewart. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  285 

our  country,  we  love  every  individual  in  it,  for  each 
is  a  part  of  the  one  great  whole. 

"  The  heart  feels  an  affection  for  those  who  tread 
the  same  soil,  who  breathe  the  same  air,  and  rejoice 
in  the  same  freedom.  AVe  feel  united  by  the  closest 
ties  to  those  who  lend  vigour  to  the  same  institu- 
tions, who  with  us  have  one  common  interest  and 
one  common  enemy."*  Interests  and  relations  like 
these  unite  the  hands  and  hearts  of  American  youth 
with  ties  too  strong  for  ambition  or  rivalry  to  break 
asunder.  Affection  is  the  great  accompaniment  of 
duty :  and  when  affection  is  so  strong  and  so  uni- 
versal, there  must  be  duties  of  no  slight  obligation. 

"  Otir  first  patriotic  duty  is  the  duty  of  obe- 
dience. Obedience  to  the  government  under  which 
we  live,  does  not  become  a  duty,  merely  because 
that  government  exists,  or  has  long  existed,  but  be- 
cause mankind — at  least  that  large  part  of  mankind, 
which  we  term  our  country — would  suffer,  upon 
the  whole,  if  we  were  not  to  obey."*  This  gives 
authority  to  any  government  to  claim  the  obedience 
of  every  citizen. 

"  He  who  is  wise  enough  to  consult  for  the  public 
weal,  and  good  enough  to  wish  it,  will  never  hazard 
a  revolution  because  a  few  abuses  exist,  and  a  faint 
hope  appears  of  correcting  them.  Though  we  may 
see  imperfections  in  the  government,  which  tend  to 
lessen  our  happiness  and  respectability,  we  vshould 
yet  be  forbearing,  and  reflect  on  the  happy  influence 
of  diffusive  knowledge,  and  upon  the  little  that  is  to 
be  hoped  from  the  exercise  of  force. 

"  We  should  weigh  the  good  with  the  good,  and 
the  evil  with  the  evil,  before  we  lift  the  voice  against 
the  government  that  protects  us.  '  The  speculative 
line  of  demarcation,  where  obedience  ought  to  end, 
and  resistance  to  begin,  is,'  as  Mr.  Burke  truly  says, 

*  Dr.  Brown. 


286  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

*  faint,  obscure,  and  not  easily  definable.  Govern- 
ment must  be  abused  and  deranged,  indeed,  before 
it  can  be  thougbt  of;  and  the  prospect  of  the  future 
must  be  as  bad  as  the  experience  of  the  past.  When 
things  are  in  that  lamentable  condition,  the  nature 
of  the  disease  is  to  indicate  the  remedy  to  those 
whom  nature  has  qualified  to  administer  in  extremi- 
ties, this  critical,  ambiguous,  bitter  potion  to  a  dis- 
tempered state. 

"  Times,  and  occasions,  and  provocations,  will 
teach  their  own  lessons.  The  wise  will  determine 
from  the  gravity  of  the  case — the  irritable  from  sen- 
sibility to  oppression — the  highminded,  from  dis- 
dain and  indignation  at  abusive  power  in  unworthy 
hands — the  brave  and  bold  from  the  love  of  ho- 
nourable danger  in  a  generous  cause ;  but  with  or 
without  ris^htj  a  revolution  will  be  the  very  last 
resource  of  the  thiiiki^ig  and  the  good.^^' 

In  these  free  independenf  states,  the  people  do 
not  believe  in  the  "  divine  right  to  govern.''  We 
recognise  no  other  principle  which  gives  moral 
authority,  than  that  which  bestows  the  greatest 
possible  amount  of  happiness,  the  longest  period  of 
time,  on  the  greatest  possible  number  of  people; 
and  this  principle  is  self-government,  with  equal 
rights  and  privileges  to  all  mankind.  "  The  divine 
right  to  govern  wrong,"  cannot  be  a  right  derived 
from  the  Divinity.  The  God,  who  is  the  God  of 
happiness,  of  truth,  and  virtue,  would  not,  surely, 
authorize  anj^  man  to  make  His  creatures  miserable. 
The  origin  of  power  and  the  authority  of  civil  law 
can  arise  from  no  other  source  than  from  the  free, 
full  consent  of  those  who  make  the  laws  which  they 
are  to  obey.  We  do  not  believe  that  "  law  is  a  rule 
of  action  proceeding  from  a  superior  to  an  inferior," 
but  a  rule  of  action  prescribed  by  that  whole 
people  who  are  to  obey  the  law.  As  the  people 
cannot  be  superior  to  themselves,  our  laws  cannot 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  287 

come  from  a  superior  to  an  inferior.  Such  is  the 
authority  which  rests  in  the  laws  of  the  United 
States. 

The  constitution  and  the  laws  of  this  government 
have  emanated  yro?;^  the  people.  They  have  not 
only  made  the  laws,  but  have  promised  to  obey 
them ;  and  thus  have  given  the  strongest  authority 
w^hich  laws  can  possibly  have.  Unjust  laws  and 
tyrannical  institutions,  imposed  by  despots,  may 
have  no  claim  on  the  people's  obedience ;  but  laws, 
which  the  people  have  made,  and  in  making,  pro- 
mised to  obey ;  which  recognise  equal  rights  and 
privileges  to  all,  which  derive  their  authority  from 
the  consent  of  those  who  are  to  obey,  and  from  that 
which  is  right  and  just  within  itself,  must  possess 
the  highest  claims  to  implicit,  universal  obedience ; 
and  such  is  the  obedience  which  every  citizen  of 
these  United  States  owes  to  this  republican  govern- 
ment. 

We  present  the  only  example  of  a  convention  of 
the  people,  antecedent  to  the  existence  of  their  go- 
vernment. The  people  assembled  and  elected  re- 
presentatives to  this  convention,  for  the  avowed 
purpose  of  framing  a  new  constitution.  This  depu- 
tation from  the  people  deliberated  and  resolved 
upon  a  form  of  government.  The  people  adopted 
the  government  they  had  framed,  and  thus  gave  it 
its  moral  authority.  Obedience  to  the  constitution 
and  laws  of  the  United  States  is  therefore  a  patriotic 
and  a  moral  duty;  and  every  member  of  this  com- 
monwealth is  under  a  legal  and  a  moral  obligation 
to  obey  his  government. 

It  is  our  duty  to  respect  those  who  have  been 
elected  to  civil  offices.  The  want  of  proper  respect 
for  those  who  enact  and  administer  the  laws,  begets 
a  want  of  respect  for  the  law  itself ;  and  if  it  is  not 
respected,  there  had  better  be  no  law.  While  every 
government  must  necessarily  partake  very  much 


288  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

of  the  character  of  those  who  administer  it,  it  like- 
wise will  receive  the  same  love  and  respect  which 
the  people  give  to  its  officers.  In  the  United  States, 
the  people  are  liahle  to  withhold  the  proper  regard 
which  they  should  have  for  their  civil  officers. 
These  men  are  taken  from  among  the  people.  Be- 
fore they  were  elected  to  office,  they  received  no 
more  respect  than  any  other  fellow-citizen ;  and  as 
they  were  formerly  considered  and  estimated  by 
the  people,  they  are  likely  to  be  regarded  while  in- 
trusted with  their  office.  But  this  should  not  be 
so  ;  the  sacredness  and  majesty  of  the  law  give  its 
officers  a  claim  to  our  respect ;  and  every  man  who 
understands  and  reverences  his  government,  will 
transfer  his  respect  to  those  who  guard  and  admi- 
nister it. 

The  universal  practice  of  defaming  candidates  for 
office  will  have  a  tendency  to  make  us  have  less 
respect  for  those  who  are  elected.  We  should  guard 
against  this  influence  by  discriminating  between  the 
true  character,  and  that  which  is  given  by  party 
spirit,  and  by  estimating  the  successful  candidate  in 
connexion  with  the  duties  and  sanctity  of  the  office. 
In  politics,  the  majority  govern  ;  and  he  who  has 
the  majority  should,  while  in  office,  have  the  respect 
of  all.  Obedience  to  the  laws  and  respect  to  civil 
officers,  are  the  first  patriotic  duties  of  every  citi- 
zen. 

The  third  duty  which  I  shall  mention  ISyWeshould 
defend  the  laws  and  constitution  of  our  country. 
The  duty  of  defending  the  land  which  we  love, 
may  be  implied  in  the  love  we  bear  to  it.  But 
when  our  fathers,  by  their  "  valour  and  their  blood," 
gave  us  a  free  government,  they  asked  our  virtue 
and  our  patriotism  to  defend  it.  When  we  received 
this  glorious  boon,  we  promised  to  defend  it :  and 
wiien  aggression  would  corrupt  or  destroy  this  con- 
secrated  temple  of  freedom,  it  is  a  duty  which  we 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  289 

owe  to  our  fathers  and  ourselves  to  defend  it  with 
our  persons,  our  property,  and  our  lives. 

"  To  think  of  the  invader  of  our  land  and  our 
rights,  is  to  feel  the  duty  of  opposition.  If  we  hear 
that  the  foot  of  an  enemy  has  pressed  our  soil  with 
an  enemy's  purpose,  we  think  of  our  excellent  frame 
of  law^s  which  will  be  broken  down ;  of  the  wild 
disorder  and  desolation  that  will  spread  over  the 
land ;  of  the  miseries  of  blood  and  rapine  which  in- 
vasion will  produce  ;  and  of  the  deeper  miseries  of 
slavery  and  oppression  which  conquest  will  bring; 
these  thoughts,  together  with  the  love  we  bear  to 
our  countrymen  and  our  kindred,  will  rouse  every 
spirit,  and  nerve  every  arm,  and  the  invader  must 
retreat  or  perish."* 

We  may  be  assailed  by  the  calumnies  of  rival 
nations,  but  our  defence  in  this  case  should  be  to 
live  in  such  a  manner  that  will  prove  their  asser- 
tions false.  By  wincing  or  retorting,  we  will  give 
importance  to  that  which,  originally,  had  no  claim 
to  our  notice.  WhatcA^cr  personal  pique  or  national 
jealousy  may  think  or  write  about  us,  let  it  be  our 
constant  aim  to  present  to  all,  the  spectacle  of  a  free, 
intelligent,  highminded  people.  Let  the  virtue, 
the  liberty,  and  the  prosperity  of  our  country  defend 
the  wisdom  of  its  people,  its  laws,  and  its  constitu- 
tion. 

"  The  citizen,  then,  is  to  obey  the  laws  and  to  de- 
fend them.  These  two  duties  relate  to  the  political 
system  that  exists.  He  has  still  one  other  great 
duty,  which  relates  not  to  things  as  they  are,  but 
to  things  as  they  7nay  be.  He  is  not  to  preserve 
the  present  system  only ;  he  is  to  endeavour,  if  it 
require  or  admit  of  improvement  of  any  sort,  to 
render  it  still  more  extensively  useful  to  those  who 
live  under  it,  and  still  more  worthy  of  the  admira- 

*  Dr.  Brown. 
2B 


290  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

tion  of  the  world  than,  with  all  its  excellence,  it 
yet  may  be. 

"  It  is  the  duty  of  every  citizen  to  increase,  to  the 
best  of  his  power,  the  means  of  public  happiness  in 
the  nation :  this  he  should  do  by  every  aid  which 
he  can  give  to  its  external  or  internal  resources ; 
and  especially,  as  the  most  important  of  all  ends, 
by  every  improvement  which  it  would  be  prudent 
to  attempt,  of  any  existing  evils,  in  its  laws  and 
general  forms  of  polity. ^^* 

The  citizen,  then,  is  not  only  to  admire  the  laws, 
but  he  is,  to  the  best  of  his  ability,  to  improve  them. 
Every  thing  human  is  more  or  less  imperfect,  and, 
therefore,  will  always  admit  of  amendment.  And 
he  who  thoroughly  understands  his  government, 
and  sincerely  loves  it,  will,  even  in  the  best  of 
governments,  see  many  deficiencies  to  be  supplied, 
and  many  faults  to  be  corrected.  It  is  the  affection- 
ate, faithful  duty  of  every  member  of  this  common- 
wealth to  detect  and  expose  the  errors  of  a  govern- 
ment, which  the  highest  wisdom  and  experience 
have  endeavoured  to  perfect. 

It  is  not  true  patriotism  that  would  keep  defects 
out  of  sight ;  nor  is  he  a  true  patriot  who  can  see 
nothing  to  be  improved.  But  while  we  are  perform- 
ing the  important  duty  of  closely  searching  for  the 
evils  that  exist,  we  should  at  the  same  time  remem- 
ber that  it  is  very  easy  to  declaim  against  abuses. 
To  find  fault  with  every  thing,  and  at  any  time,  is 
never  difficult.  Some  do  it  that  they  may  make  a 
show  of  superiority ;  and  others  to  gratify  a  cynical 
disposition.  It  seems  as  if  some  were  glad  to  find 
a  fault,  that  they  may  have  a  chance  to  round  a  few 
periods  of  abusive  eloquence.  Such  declaimers 
should  be  treated  with  contempt. 

But  he  who,  out  of  love  to  his  country  and  to  his 

*  Dr.  Brown. 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  291 

fellow-men,  presents  a  deficiency  or  a  defect,  should 
have  a  candid,  respectful  hearing.  No  one  who 
loves  the  general  good,  will  decry  against  men  or 
measures,  merely  to  gratify  his  own  selfish  feelings  ; 
but  such  a  man  must  publish  wrongs  and  point  out 
evils.  He  does  it  because  the  happiness  of  man  is 
dearer  to  him  than  the  respect  of  blind  admirers  of 
their  country. 

But,  however  honest  we  may  be  in  our  efforts  to 
reform,  we  should  always  act  cautiously :  and  where 
there  is  not  experience  to  consult,  and  a  difference 
of  opinion,  we  should  mistrust  our  judgments.  Sud- 
den changes  and  rash  innovations  are  always  to  be 
feared.  Blind  zeal  and  hasty  measures  we  all  have 
a  right  to  suspect.  The  true  patriot,  then,  will  ex- 
ercise a  proper  respect  for  the  laws  and  institutions 
that  are,  and  will  attentively  consider  the  evils  of  a 
change,  and  of  the  chances  for  and  against  him  of 
making  the  proposed  alteration  an  extensive,  per- 
manent amendment. 

Men  are  apt  to  make  changes  under  the  name  of 
reform,  because  they  see  obstacles  to  their  ambition 
or  avarice.  We  are  very  liable  to  be  deceived  here. 
What  we  ivish  to  be  so,  we  easily  believe  ought  to 
be  so.  When  a  statesman  contemplates  a  change, 
and  sees  that  it  will  greatly  improve  his  own  inte- 
rest, it  is  not  very  difficult  to  omit  the  consideration 
of  the  nation's  good ;  at  least,  arguments  for  the 
latter  will  not  occur  so  readily  as  arguments  for  the 
former.  We  need  to  watch  ourselves,  therefore, 
when  we  would  recommend  a  new  law,  or  an  altera- 
tion in  the  existing  one.  When  we  act  for  the  pub- 
lic, let  us  see  that  the  public  good  is  our  motive. 

We  may  fulfil  the  duty  of  augmenting  the  general 
happiness  of  our  country  bi/  increasing  its  pro- 
ducts. He  is  a  benefactor  to  his  country  who  im- 
proves the  art  of  cultivating  the  soil ;  who  invents 
or  brings  into  general  notice  useful  instruments  of 


292  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

husbandry ;  who  brings  to  greater  perfection  the 
different  varieties  of  grain,  and  makes  known  their 
most  congenial  soil  and  climate.  He  who  makes 
two  blades  of  grass  grow  where  but  one  has  been 
raised,  increases  the  means  of  his  country's  happi- 
ness. 

He  who  gives  his  leisure  moments  to  the  science 
of  mineralogy,  and  by  this  means  discovers  a  mine 
of  coal  or  metallic  ore,  opens  to  his  country  a  source 
of  labour  and  of  wealth  ;  and  they  who  invent  ma- 
chinery for  manufacturing  the  minerals  of  the  earth, 
and  the  products  of  the  soil,  are  justly  counted  bene- 
factors of  their  nation.  As  the  products  of  a  nation 
are  the  wages  of  a  people,  he  who  increases  the 
amount  of  labour  by  machinery  or  skill,  so  as  to  in- 
crease the  products,  will,  in  the  same  proportion, 
increase  the  wealth  of  the  people.  A  mechanic 
may  bless  his  country  by  improving  his  tools,  his 
machinery,  and  the  article  he  manufactures. 

A  farmer  may  do  a  national  good  by  improving 
the  breed  of  cattle,  and  of  all  kinds  of  stock,  and  by 
enriching  the  soil  he  cultivates.  To  make  this  in- 
crease and  improvement  in  the  products  of  the  land, 
is  the  duty,  as  far  as  he  is  able,  of  every  citizen. 
The  nation  gives  him  protection  and  encouragement 
that  he  may  do  so  ;  and  in  his  allegiance  he  promises 
to  do  his  duty  and  seek  his  country's  greatest  good. 

We  may  increase  the  happiness  of  our  people  hy 
opening  new  markets  for  our  jjroducts.  We  have 
some  wants  which  we  cannot  supply,  and  others  for 
which  we  have  more  than  a  supply.  By  exchang- 
ing equal  values  with  other  nations,  the  surplus  of 
our  products  are  given  for  those  which  we  could 
not  supply  ourselves ;  or  else  the  surplus  is  ex- 
changed for  money,  which,  having  a  common  value, 
may  be  given  for  any  required  necessary  of  life. 

Now,  he  who  opens  a  new  market  where  the  raw 
materials  and  manufactures  which  remain  after  our 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  2^3 

wants  are  supplied,  may  be  exchanged  for  money 
or  the  necessaries  of  life,  has  increased  the  labour 
a§tl  the  wealth  of  his  country.  We  may  open  new 
markets  at  home  by  increasing  the  consumption  with 
new  manufactories.  By  these  noble,  national  enter- 
prizes,  every  citizen  may  be  a  patron  and  a  blesser 
of  his  country  ;  and  a  man  is  obligated  to  do  not 
only  what  is  right,  but  all  that  he  can  do. 

We  may  increase  our  country's  strength  and 
wealth  by  fadlitating  the  intercourse  between 
districts.  The  projection  and  execution  of  canals 
and  rail-roads,  making  rivers  navigable,  and  opening 
highways  between  important  locations,  increases 
the  value  of  the  lands,  and  unites  the  strength  of  a 
nation.  The  prosperity  of  a  country  depends  as 
much  upon  the  rapidity  and  cheaj)ness  of  its  inland 
conveyance,  as  it  does  upon  its  good  soil  and  safe 
harbours. 

When  the  transportation  is  cheap  and  regular, 
remote  districts  enjoy  the  advantages  of  home  and 
foreign  markets;  by  this  means  they  are  placed  by 
the  side  of  seaport  towns.  To  facilitate  intercourse 
where  the  lands  are  as  distant  as  they  are  in  the 
United  States,  is  a  very  important  duty,  and  one 
that  every  citizen  owes  to  the  prosperity  of  his 
country. 

Another  benevolent  and  patriotic  duty  of  citizens 
is  the  establishment  of  institutions  of  charity  and 
instruction.  Institutions  like  these  are  the  fairest 
ornaments  of  the  land ;  and  the  founder  of  them  is 
entitled  to  the  lasting  gratitude  of  nations.  In  the 
United  States,  the  literary  institutions  are  the 
sources  and  the  depositories  of  liberty ;  and  the 
charitable  institutions  of  this  republic — the  asylum 
of  a  world — are  the  resting  places  and  the  home 
of  the  destitute  and  the  helpless  of  every  nation. 

He  who  founds  a  school  of  instruction,  establishes 
the  liberty  of  his  country;  and  he  who  educates 
2  B  2 


294  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

the  people,  makes  them  free.  Those  who  have  en- 
lightened mankind,  and  diffused  useful  knowledge 
through  the  whole  mass  of  the  people,  have  b#en 
the  greatest  philanthropists  of  their  race,  for  I  know 
of  no  benevolence  so  exalted  as  that  which  pours 
light  and  truth  into  the  immortal  mind. 

He  who  wishes  his  country  to  take  a  high  stand- 
ing among  the  nations  of  the  earth  ;  he  who  wishes 
for  the  growing  improvement  and  prosperity  of  his 
countrymen  ;  and  he  who  wishes  the  perpetuity  of 
this  glorious  example  of  liberty  and  self-govern- 
ment, will  desire  to  do  all  in  his  power  to  educate 
the  people.  We  may  serve  our  country  by  defend- 
ing her  constitution,  by  fighting  her  battles,  and  by 
contributing  to  her  revenues  ;  but  never  do  we  serve 
her  so  nobly  and  so  effectually  as  we  do  when  we 
educate  her  people. 

The  enlightened  man  makes  the  laws  his  slaves 
under  him ;  but  the  ignorant  man  is  a  slave  under 
the  laws.  Intelligent  men  and  freemen  are  always 
synonymous ; — they  always  have  and  always  will 
signify  the  same  thing.  Then,  let  those  who  would 
serve  their  country  in  the  highest  and  noblest  capa- 
city which  they  can  have,  see  that  the  education 
and  the  literature  of  their  country  is  supported  and 
encouraged. 

//  /.9  the  duty  of  citizens  to  be  able  and  dis- 
posed to  correct  the  errors  which  exist  in  the  sys- 
tems of  government.  Experience,  where  there  is 
proper  observation  and  reflection,  is  a  constant 
teacher.  That  which  appeared  wise  in  theory  yes- 
terday, may,  by  trying  its  application,  appear  inex- 
pedient in  practice  to-morrow. 

The  law  that  looked  just  and  benevolent  in  the 
abstract,  may,  when  meeting  with  the  relations  of 
other  laws,  be  found  unsuitable  in  practice ;  and 
laws  which  have  received  the  approval  of  those  who 
obey,  may,  under  a  change  of  circumstances,  be 


DISTRICT    SCHOOL.  295 

found  oppressive.  It  is  the  duty,  therefore,  of  citi- 
zens to  correct  the  errors  which  ignorance,  or  inex- 
perience, or  change  of  circumstances  have  occasioned. 

As  long  as  the  machinery  of  government  is  a 
human  construction,  there  will  be  errors  in  it,  and 
it  is  the  duty  of  men  to  watch  the  effect  of  expe- 
rience, and  detect  that  which  may  be  pernicious, 
and  succour  that  which  is  found  beneficial.  By 
this  means  we  may  do  much  to  augment  the  general 
happiness.  He  who  exposes  a  bad  law,  and  pro- 
poses a  good  one  in  its  stead,  presents  a  valuable 
offering  to  society.  A  wise  law  may  do  more  good 
to  a  nation  than  all  its  individual  benevolence.  It 
may  prevent  evils  and  confer  blessings  which  will 
place  its  author  among  the  benefactors  of  his  age. 

Citizens  may  increase  the  general  happiness  of 
their  country,  by  adapting  their  forrn  of  govern- 
ment to  the  condition  and  character  of  the  people. 
Man  is  a  mutable  being.  Our  motives,  purposes, 
objects  of  atfection,  and  views  of  life,  are  the  subjects 
of  a  continued  change.  The  principle  of  mutation 
runs  not  only  through  the  life  of  each  individual, 
but  through  the  whole  spirit  and  genius  of  nations. 
What  was  applauded  and  reverenced  yesterday,  is 
despised  to-day. 

Such  is  the  fluctuation  of  feeling,  and  the  transi- 
toriness  of  opinion.  Now,  that  is  the  best  govern- 
ment which  is  best  adapted  to  the  feelings,  educa- 
tion, and  circumstances  of  its  subjects.  When  the 
people  become  different,  their  government  should 
become  different.  The  influence  of  the  laws  should 
be  such  as  to  assist  a  good  change,  or  check  a  bad 
one.  And  as  the  people  are  constantly  varying, 
the  laws  will  require  a  corresponding  modification. 

He  who  sees  these  mutations  in  the  people,  and 
the  influence  of  the  existing  government,  will  know 
whether  they  are  adapted  to  each  other  or  not :  and 
if  he  perceives  an  unsuitableness  in  the  one  to  the 


296  DISTRICT    SCHOOL. 

other,  he  will  confer  a  blessing  on  the  nation  by 
making  the  incongruity  known. 

And,  lastly,  we  may  augment  the  general  happi- 
ness of  our  country,  bi/  ma  king  ourselves  virtuous 
and  intelligent.  To  perform  this  duty,  is  to  pre- 
pare ourselves  for  every  other  one  ;  and  every  citi- 
zen of  a  free  government  is  under  a  legal  and  a  moral 
obligation  to  become  intelligent  enough  to  make  his 
laws,  and  virtuous  enough  to  obey  them. 

In  this  country,  knowledge  is  brought  to  the  door 
of  every  man  ;  means  of  useful  information  may  be 
used  by  all,  for  every  encouragement  is  given  to 
our  citizens  that  they  may  "  inform  the  head  and 
improve  the  heart.^'  To  improve  ourselves  that 
we  may  enlighten  others,  and  to  lead  a  moral  and 
a  religious  life  that  we  may  be  a  good  example  to 
others,  is  a  duty  which  every  man  owes  to  his 
fellow-men  ;  but  how  emphatically  is  it  the  duty 
o^  freemen  ! 

We  do  not  give  our  country  liberty  by  giving  it 
just  and  equal  laws,  but  by  giving  it  intellectual 
and  religious  instruction  ;  neither  do  we  give  our 
country  greatness  and  happiness  by  giving  it  a  free 
constitution,  but  by  giving  the  whole  people  mental 
and  moral  light.  Then,  if  we  would  perpetuate  our 
country's  happiness  and  liberty,  we  must  make 
ourselves  intellectual  and  moral  instructers.  If  we 
would  be  patriotic  citizens,  we  must  be  well-in- 
formed, religious  men. 


THE    END. 


THE  PEOPIiS'S  Z.ZBRARY. 

"  The  editors  and  publishers  should  receive  the  thanks  of  the  present 
generation,  and  tlie  gratitude  of  posterity,  for  being  the  first  to  prefwre  in 
this  language  what  deserves  to  be  entitled  not  the  ErsCYCLOP^DIA 
AMERICANA,  but  the  people's  library." — N.  Y.  Courier  and  Enquirer. 


Just  Published^  by  Carey,  Lea,  and  Blanchard, 

And  sold  in  Philadelphia  by  E.  L.  Carey  ^  A.  Harl ;  in  New- York  by 
(i.  A^  C.  t^  H.  Carvill ;  in  Boston  by  Carter  <|'  Hendee ;  in  Baltimore  by  E. 
J.  Coule,  ^'  W.  ^  J.  Neat ;  in  VV'ashington  by  Thompson  ^  Homaiis ;  in 
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ENCYCLOPEDIA  AMERICANA: 

A 

POPULAR  DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS,  SCIENCES,  LITERATURE,  HISTORY,  AND  POLITICS, 

BROUGHT   DOWN  TO   THE   PRESENT    TIME,    AND    INCI.DDINO   A    COPIOUS 
COLLECTION    OK  ORIGINAL   ARTICLES    IN 

AMERICAN  BIOGRAPHY: 

On  the  basis  of  the  Seventh  Edition  of  the  German 

CONVERSATIONS-LEXICON. 


Edited  by  FRANCIS  LIEBER, 

ASSISTED    BY 

EDWARD  WIGGLESWORTH  and  T.  G.  BRADFORD,  EsaR3. 


IN  Til  FIFTEEN  LARGE  VOLUMES,  OCTAVO,  PRICE  TO   SUBSCRIBERS, 
BOUND  IN  CLOTH,  TWO  DOLLARS  AND  A  HALF  EACH. 
EACH    VOLUME   WILL    CONTAIN    BETWEEN   600    AND   700   PAGES. 


"THE  WORLD-RENOWNED  CONVERSATIONS-LEXICON."— EJtn6^t^^^ 

Rcciew.  j 

"To  siipprsede  ciinibrotisEncycIopfedias.  and  put  within  the  reach  of  thf?  poor- 
est man,  a  complete  library,  equal  to  about  forty  or  fifty  pond-Fized  octavos,  em-] 
braciiijj  every  pi)ssihle  siilijpct  of  interest  to  the  niiinher  of  20,(00  in  all— provided 
\\c.  can  spare  either  from  his  earnings  or  his  extravagancies,  twenty  cents  a  week, 
f)r  three  years,  a  library  so  contrived,  as  to  be  equally  suited  to  the  Ifarne/  and 
the  unlearned,— the  mechanic— the  merchant,  and  the  professional  man."— JV.  Y. 
Courier  and  Ingvirer. 

"  'I'he  reputation  of  this  valuable  work  has  augmented  with  each  volume  ;  and 
if  the  uiiatiiinous  opinion  of  the  press,  uttered  from  all  quarters,  be  true,  which 
in  this  instance  happens  to  be  the  case,  it  is  indeed  one  of  the  best  of  publica- 
tions. It  should  be  in  the  possession  of  every  intelligent  man,  as  it  is  a  library 
in  itself,  comprising  an  immense  mass  of  lore  upon  almost  every  possible  sub- 
ject, and  in  the  cheapest  possible  form."— JV.  Y.  Mirror. 


p:ncyclop^dia  aiviericana. 


"Witnpsst'S  from  every  part  of  thn  country  concurred  in  declaring  that  the 
Rnrycl<»|Kr(lia  Ainnricana  was  in  a  fair  way  to  dejjrado  the  dignity  of  loarning, 
and  psp-cially  the  li-arning  of  EnryclopiEdias,  by  niaking  it  too  c/ieap—lhat  the 
niiillitud(?s  of  all  clasws  were  infatuated  with  it  in  saying  in  so  many  words 
from  tlip  hiuhost  to  the  lowest,  '  the  more  we  see  of  the  work  the  belter  we  like 
it.'  " — JV*.  y.  Courier  and  Inquirer. 

"The  articles  in  the  present  volume  appear  to  us  to  evince  the  same  ability 
and  research  which  pained  so  favorable  a  reception  for  tHe  work  at  its  com- 
mencement. The  .Appendix  to  the  volume  now  before  us,  containini;  an  account 
of  tlie  Indian  l.anfruupes  of  Jimerica,  must  prove  highly  interesting  to  the  reader 
in  this  country;  and  it  is  at  once  remarkable  as  a  specimen  of  history  and  phi- 
lology. The  work  altogether,  we  may  again  be  permitted  to  observe,  reflects 
distinguished  credit  upon  the  literary  and  scientific  character,  as  well  as  the 
scholarship  of  our  country." — Charleston  Courier. 

"The  copious  information  which  this  work  affords  on  American  subjects, 
fully  justifies  its  title  of  an  American  Dictionary;  while  at  the  same  time  the 
extent,  variety,  and  felicitous  disposition  of  its  topics,  make  it  tiie  most  conve- 
nient and  satisfactory  Encycloptedia  tlialwe  have  ever  seen." — J^alionalJournal. 

"  If  the.«<ucceeding  volumes  shall  etiual  in  merit  the  one  before  us,  we  may 
confuit^ntly  anticipate  for  tl>e  work  a  reputation  and  usefulness  which  ought  to 
secure  for  it  the  most  tlalteriuf  encouragement  and  patronage." — Federal  Gazette. 

"The  variety  of  topics  is  of  course  vast,  and  they  are  treated  in  a  manner 
which  is  at  once  so  full  of  information  and  so  interesting,  that  tiic  work,  instead 
of  being  merely  referred  to,  might  be  regularly  perused  with  as  much  pleasure  as 
profit." — Baltimore  JImerican. 

"  We  view  it  as  a  publication  worthy  of  the  age  and  of  the  country,  ana  can- 
not but  believe  the  discrimination  of  our  countrymen  will  sustain  the  publish- 
ers, and  well  reward  them  for  this  contribution  to  American  Literature." — Bal- 
timore Patriot. 

"  It  reflects  the  greatest  credit  on  those  who  have  been  concerned  in  its  pro- 
duction, and  promises,  in  a  variety  of  respects,  to  be  the  best  as  well  as  the  most 
compendious  dictionary  of  the  arts,  sciences,  history,  politics,  biography,  &:c. 
which  has  yet  been  compiled.  The  style  of  the  portion  we  have  read  is  teise 
and  perspicuous;  and  it  is  really  curious  how  so  much  scientific  and  other  in- 
formation could  have  been  so  satisfactorily  communicated  in  such  brief  limits." 
— JV.  Y.  Evening  Post. 

"  A  compendious  library,  and  invaluable  book  of  reference."— JV.  Y.  American. 

"Those  who  can,  by  any  honest  modes  of  economy,  reserve  the  sum  of  two 
dollars  and  fifty  cents  quarterly,  from  their  family  expenses,  may  pay  for  this 
work  as  fast  as  it  is  published  ;  and  we  confidently  believe  that  they  will  find  at 
the  end  that  they  never  purchased  so  much  general,  practical,  useful  information 
at  so  clieap  a  rate." — Journal  of  Education. 

"  If  the  encouragement  to  the  piiblfs!>ers  slwuld  correspond  with  the  testimony 
in  favor  of  their  enterprise,  and  the  l)eautiful  and  faithful  style  of  its  execution, 
the  hazard  of  the  undertaking,  bold  as  it  was,  will  be  well  comiwjnsated  ;  and 
our  libraries  will  be  enriched  by  the  most  generally  useful  encyclopedic  diction- 
ary that  has  been  oflered  to  the  readers  of  the  English  language.  Full  enough 
for  the  general  scholar,  and  plain  enough  for  every  capacity,  it  is  far  mere  con- 
venient, in  every  view  and  form,  than  its  more  expensive  and  ponderous  prede- 
cessors " — American  Farmer. 

'The  high  reputation  of  the  contributors  to  this  work,  will  not  fail  to  insuri 
it  a  favorable  reception,  and  its  own  merits  will  do  the  rest."— Silliman's  Joun. 

"The  work  will  be  a  valuable  possession  to  every  family  or  individual  thai 
can  afford  to  purchase  it;  and  we  take  pleasure,  therefore,  in  extending  the 
knowledge  of  its  merits."— JVaCJowa/  Intelligencer. 

•The  KncvlopjBdia  Americana  is  a  prodigious  improvement  upon  all  that  bar. 
gone  before  it ;  a  thing  for  our  country,  as  well  as  the  country  that  have  it  birth, 
to  Ik-  proud  of;  an  inexhaustible  treas'ury  of  useful,  pleas-ant,  and  familiar  learn 
ing  on  every  possible  subject  so  arranged  as  to  be  speedily  and  safety  nff-'ired  to 
on  emergency,  as  well  a.s  on  deliberate  inquiry;  and  better  still,  adapted  to  the 
understanding,  and  put  within  the  reach  of  the  multitude.  *  *  *  The  Ency- 
clopEedia  Americana  is  a  work  without  which  no  library  worthy  of  the  name 
can  hereafter  be  made  up."— yanAce. 


CABIIVET  CYCIiOPiEDLl, 

CONDUCTED   BY   THfi 

REV.  DIONYSIUS  LARDNER,  LL.D.  F.R.S.  L.&.E. 
M.  R.  I.  A.  F.  L.  S.-  F.  Z.  S.  Hon.  F.  C.  P.  S.  M.  Ast.  S.  &.c.  &c. 

ASSISTED  BY 

EMINENT  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  MEN. 


Now  Publishing  by  Carey,  Lea,  ^  Blanchard^  and  for  sale  by  alt  BtukselUrs 

This  work  Will  form  a  popular  compendium  of  whatever  is  tisefnl,  instructive, 
and  interesting,  in  the  circle  of  human  knowledge.  A  novel  plan  of  pultiicatiou 
and  arrangement  has  been  adopted,  which  presents  peculiar  advantages.  With- 
out fully  detailing  the  method,  a  few  of  these  advantages  may  be  mentioned. 

Each  volume  will  contain  one  or  more  subjects  uninterrupted  and  unbroken, 
and  will  be  accompanied  by  the  corresponding  plates  or  other  appropriate  illus- 
trations. Facility  of  reference  will  be  obtained  without  fettering  the  uork  by 
a  continued  alphabetical  arrangement.  A  subscriber  may  omit  purliculnr  vol- 
umes or  sets  of  volumes,  without  disintegrating  his  series.  Thus  each  purchaser 
may  form  from  the  "Cabinkt"  a  Cydoptedia,  more  or  less  comprelien.>;ive,  as 
may  suit  his  means,  taste,  or  profession.  If  a  subscriber  desire  to  discontinue 
the  work  at  any  stage  of  its  publication,  the  voJumes  which  he  may  have  re- 
ceived will  not  lose  their  value  by  separation  from  the  rest  of  the  work,  since 
they  will  always  either  be  complete  inlhemselves,  or  may  be  made  so  at  a  trilling 
exp<jnse. 

The  purchasers  will  never  find  their  property  in  this  work  destroyed  by  the 
publication  of  a  second  edition.  'J'lic  arrangement  is  such  that  particular  vol- 
umes may  be  re-edited  or  re-written  without  disturbing  the  others.  The  "Cabi- 
net Cyclop.«dia'*  will  thus  be  in  a  state  of  continual  renovation,  keeping  pace 
with  the  never-ceasing  improvements  in  knowledge,  drawing  within  its  rirele 
fro(n  year  to  year  whatever  is  new,  and  casting  oft'whatever  is  obscdete,  so  as  to 
form  a  constantly  modernized  CycloiKedia.  Such  are  a  few  of  the  advantages 
which  the  proprietors  have  to  offer  to  the  public,  and  w  hich  they  pledge  them- 
aelves  to  realize. 

Treatises  on  subjects  which  are  technical  and  professional  will  ba  adapted, 
not  so  much  to  those  who  desire  to  attain  a  practical  proficiency,  as  to  those 
who  seek  that  portion  of  information  respecting  such  matters  which  is  generally 
expected  from  well-educated  persons.  An  interest  will  Imj  imparted  to  what  is 
abstract  by  copious  illustratioi.r,  and  the  sciences  will  be  rendered  attractive,  by 
treating  them  with  reference  to  the  most  familiar  objects  and  occurrences. 

The  unwieldly  bulk  of  Encyclopaedias,  not  less  than  the  abstruse  discussions 
which  they  contain,  has  hitherto  consigned  them  to  the  library,  as  works  of  only 
occasional  reference.  The  present  work,  from  its  portable  form  and  popular  style, 
will  claim  a  place  in  the  drawing-room  and  the  boudoir.  Forming  in  itself  a 
Complete  Libranj,  affording  an  extensive  and  infinitely  varied  store  of  instruc 
tion  and  amusement,  presenting  just  so  much  on  every  subject  as  those  not  pro 
fessionally  engaged  in  it  require,  convenient  in  size,  attractive  in  form,  elegant 
in  illustrations,  and  most  moderate  in  expense,  the  "Cabinet  CYrr,op.»:DiA"  will, 
it  is  hoped,  be  found  an  object  of  paramount  interest  in  every  family. 

To  the  heads  of  schools  and  all  places  of  public  education  the  proprietors  trust 
that  this  work  will  particularly  recommend  itself. 

It  seems  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  that  nothing  will  be  admitted  into  the 
pages  of  the  "  Cabinet  CvcLop.f.DiA"  which  can  have  the  most  remote  tendency 
to  offend  public  or  private  morals.  To  enforce  the  cultivation  of  religion  and 
the  practice  of  virtue  should  be  a  principal  object  with  all  who  undertake  to 
inform  the  public  mind  ;  but  with  the  views  j^Ist  explained,  the  conductor  of  this 
work  feels  these  considerations  more  especially  pressed  upon  his  attention 
Parents  and  guardians  may,  therefore,  rest  assured  that  they  will  never  find  it 
necessary  to  place  a  volume  of  the  "Cabinet"  beyond  the  reach  of  their  children 
or  pupils. 


LARDNER  S  CABINET  CYCL0P^:DIA. 


IT  IS  NOT  EASY  TO  DEVISE  A  CURE  FOR  SUCH  A  STATE  OF  THINGS  (THE  DE 
CMNINO  TASTE  FOR  SCIENCE;)  BLT  THE  MOST  OHVIOCS  REMEDY  IS  TO  I'ROVtDE 
THE  EDCCATED  CLASSES  WITH  A  SERIES  OF  WORKS  ON  POPULAR  AND  PRACTI- 
CAL SCIENCE,  FREED  FROM  MATHEMATICAL  SYMBOLS  AND  TECHNICAL  TERMS, 
WRITTEN  IN  SIMPLE  AND  PERSPICUOUS  LANGUAOE,  AND  ILLUSTRATED  BY  FACTS 
AND   EXPERIMENTS,  WHICH   ARE    LEVEL   TO   THE   CAPACITY  OF  ORDINARY  MINDS." 

Quarterly  Review. 


PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE  ON  THE  OBJECTS,  ADVAN- 
TAGES, AND  PLEASURES  OP  THE  STUDY  OF  NATU- 
RAL PHILOSOPHY.  By  J.  T.  W,  Hcr»clicl,  A.  M.  late  Fel- 
low of  St.  Jolm'a  College,  Cambridge. 

"  Without  disparaging  any  other  of  the  many  interesting  and  instrnctive  vol- 
UMics  issued  in  the  form  of  cabinet  and  family  libraries,  it  is,  perhaps,  not  too 
much  to  place  at  the  head  of  the  list,  for  extent  and  variety  of  condensed  infor- 
mation, Mr.  Horchel's  discourse  of  Natural  Thilosophy  in  Dr.  Lardncr's  Cyclo- 
p;edja." — Christian  Observer. 

"  The  finest  work  of  philosophical  genius  whicli  this  age  has  seen."— Mackin- 
tosh's England. 

"  lly  far  the  most  delightful  book  to  which  the  existing  competition  betveen 
literary  rivals  of  great  talent  and  enterprise  has  given  rise." — Monthly  licvicic. 

"  Mr.  Herschel's  delightful  volume.  *  *  *  We  find  scattered  through  the 
work  instances  of  vivid  and  happy  illustration,  where  the  fancy  is  usefully  called 
into  action,  so  as  sometimes  to  remind  us  of  the  splendid  pictures  wljicli  crowd 
upon  us  in  the  style  of  Bacon." — Quarterly  Review. 

"  It  is  the  most  exciting  volume  of  tlie  kind  we  ever  met  with." — Monthly 
Magazine. 

*'  One  of  the  most  instructive  and  delightful  books  we  have  ever  perused."— 
U.  S.  Journal. 


A    TREATISE    ON    MECHANICS.     By  Capt.  Katcr,  and  tlie 
Rev.  Dionysius  Lardner.    'Witli  uumerous  engravings. 

"  A  work  which  contains  an  uncommon  amount  of  useful  information,  ex- 
hibited  in  a  plain  and  very  intelligible  form." — Olmsted's  JVat.  Philosophy. 

"This  volume  has  been  lately  published  in  England,  as  a  part  of  Dr.  Lardner's 
Cabinet  (Jycloptedia,  and  has  received  the  unsolicited  approbation  of  th<i  most 
eminent  men  of  science,  and  the  most  discriminating  journals  and  reviews,  in 
the  British  metropolis. — It  is  written  in  a  popular  and  intelligible  style,  entirely 
free  from  mathematical  symbols,  and  disencumbered  as  far  as  possible  of  tech- 
nical phrases." — Boston  Traveller. 

"  Admirable  in  development  and  clear  in  principles,  and  especially  felicitous  in 
illustration  from  familiar  subjects." — Monthly  Mag. 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  from  the  earliest  period  to  the 
present  time. 


A    TREATISE    ON    HYDROSTATICS    AND    PNEUMATICS. 
By  tlie  Rev.  D.  Lardner.    Witli  numerous  engravings. 

"  It  fully  sustairs  the  favorable  opinion  we  have  already  expressed  as  to  tliis 
valuable  comi)endium  of  modern  science." — Lit.  Gazette. 

"  Dr.  Lardner  has  made  a  good  use  of  his  acqualniaucs  with  the  familiar  facts 
which  illustrate  the  principles  of  science."— MotUhly  Magazir.s. 

"It  is  written  with  a  full  knowledce  of  thii  suhject,  and  in  a  popular  style, 
abounding  in  practical  illustrations  of  the  abstruse  operations  of  these  impor- 
tant sciences." — [/.  S.  Journal. 


LARDNER'S  CABINET  CYCLOPAEDIA. 


HISTORY  OP  ENGLAND.    By  Sir  James  Mackliitosli.    In 
8  Vols.    Vols.  1,  »  and  3  piiljlislied. 

•'  In  the  first  volume  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh's  History  of  England,  we 
find  enough  to  warrant  the  anticipations  of  the  public,  that  a  calm  and  lumin- 
ous philosophy  will  diffuse  itself  over  the  long  narrative  of  our  British  His- 
tory."— Edinburgh  Review. 

"  In  this  volume  Sir  James  Mackintosh  fully  developes  those  great  powers, 
for  the  possession  of  which  the  public  have  long  given  him  credit.  The  resalt 
is  the  ablest  commentary  that  has  yet  appeared  in  our  language  upon  some 
of  the  most  important  circumstances  of  English  History." — itlas. 

"Worthy  in  the  method,  style,  and  reflections,  of  the  author's  high  reputa- 
tion. We  were  particularly  pleased  with  his  high  vein  of  philosophical  sen- 
timent, and  his  occasional  survey  of  contemporary  annals." — Kat.  Oazette. 

"  If  talents  of  the  highest  order,  long  experience  in  politics,  and  years  of 
application  to  the  study  of  history  and  the  collection  of  information,  can  com- 
mand superiority  in  a  historian,  Sir  James  Machintosh  may,  without  reading 
this  work,  be  said  to  have  produced  the  best  history  of  this  country.  A  peru- 
sal of  the  work  will  prove  that  those  who  anticipated  a  superior  production, 
have  not  reckoned  in  vain  on  the  high  qualifications  of  the  author."— Courier. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS,  to  the  Battle  of 
Waterloo.    By  T.  C.  Grattan. 

"  It  is  but  justice  to  Mr.  Grattan  to  say  that  he  has  executed  his  laborious 
task  with  much  industry  and  proportionate  effect.  Undisfi:gured  by  pompous 
nothingness,  and  without  any  of  the  affectation  of  philosophical  profundity, 
his  style  is  simple,  light,  and  fresh— perspicuous,  smooth,  and  harmonious."— 
La  Belle  Jissemhlee. 

"  Never  did  work  appear  at  a  more  fortunate  period.  The  volume  before  us 
is  a  compressed  but  clear  and  impartial  narrative."— /,tf.  Qai. 


HISTORY  OF  FRANCE.  By  Eyre  Evans  Crowe.  In  3  vols. 

"  His  history  of  France  is  worthy  to  figure  with  the  works  of  his  associates, 
the  best  of  their  day,  Scott  and  Mackintosh." — Monthly  Mag. 

"  For  such  a  task  Mr.  Crowe  is  eminently  qualified.  At  a  glance,  as  it  were, 
his  eye  takes  in  the  theatre  of  centuries.  His  style  is  neat,  clear,  and  pithy; 
and  his  power  of  condensation  enables  him  to  say  much,  and  effectively,  in  a 
few  words,  to  present  a  distinct  and  perfect  picture  in  a  narrowly  circum- 
scribed space." — La  Belle  .^ssemblee. 


HISTORY  OP  SCOTLAND.    By  Sir  AValter  Scott.  In  3  Vols. 

"The  History  of  Scotland,  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  de- 
clare, will  be,  if  possible,  more  extensively  read,  than  the  most  popular  work 
of  fiction,  by  the  same  prolific  author,  and  for  this  obvious  reason  :  it  com- 
bines much  of  the  brilliant  coloring  of  the  Ivanhoe  pictures  of  by-gone  man- 
ners, and  all  the  graceful  facility  of  style  and  picturesqueness  of  description 
of  his  other  charming  romances,  with  a  minute  fidelity  to  the  facts  of  history, 
and  a  searching  scrutiny  into  their  authenticity  and  relative  value,  which 
might  put  to  the  blush  Mr.  Hume  and  other  professed  historians.  Such  is  the 
magic  charm  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  pen,  it  has  only  to  touch  the  simplest  inci- 
dent of  every-day  life,  and  it  starts  up  invested  with  all  the  interest  of  a  scene 
of  romance;  and  yet  such  is  his  fidelity  to  the  text  of  nature,  that  the  knights 
and  serfs,  and  collared  fools  with  whom  his  inventive  genius  has  pnopled  so 
many  volumes,  are  regarded  by  us  as  not  mere  creations  of  fancy,  but  as  real 
flesh  and  blood  existences,  with  all  the  virtues,  feelings  and  errors  of  com- 
monplace  humanity." — Lit.  Oarcttc. 


LARDNER'S  CABINET  CYCLOPAEDIA. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  RISE,  PROGRESS,  and  PRESENT 
STATE  OF  THE  SILK  MANUFACTURE;  with  numerous 
engravings. 

"It  contains  ahnnrlnnt  information  in  every  department  of  this  interesting 
branch  of  human  industry — in  the  history,  culture,  and  manufacture  of  silk." — 
Monthly  Maf^aiine. 

"  There  is  a  great  deal  of  curious  information  in  this  little  volume." — Lit.  Oat. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  ITAIJAN  REPUBLICS ;  being  a  View  of 
the  Rise,  Progress,  and  Fall  of  Italian  Freedom.  By  J.  C.  L. 
De  Sismondi. 

"The  excellencies,  drfcrts.  and  forfunea  of  the  governments  of  the  ftalian 
commonwealths,  form  a  body  «f  the  most  valuable  materials  fur  political  phi- 
losophy. It  is  time  that  they  should  be  acres-fible  to  the  American  people,  as 
they  are  about  to  be  rendered  in  Sisniondi's  nitisttrly  abridgment.  He  has  done 
for  his  large  work,  wUal  Irving  accomplished  so  well  for  liis  Life  of  Columbus." 
— J\rational  Gazette. 

HISTORY  of  the  RISE,  PROGRESS,  and  PRESENT 
STATE  of  the  MANUFACTURES  of  PORCELAIN  and 
GLASS.     With  numerous  VYood  Cuts. 

"  In  the  design  and  execution  of  the  work,  thi'  author  has  displayed  consider- 
able judsrment  and  skill,  an<l  has  so  <Ii.<pn.-fd  of  liis  valuable  materials  as  to  ren- 
der tfie  book  attractive  and  instructive  to  the  general  class  of  readers." — Sat. 
Evening  Post. 

"  The  author  has,  by  a  popular  treatment,  made  it  one  of  the  most  interesting 
books  that  has  been  issued  of  this  sories.  'I'here  are,  we  believe,  few  of  the 
useful  arts  less  generally  undorstofKl  than  those  of  porcelain  and  glass  making. 
These  are  completely  illustrated  by  Dr.  Lardner,  and  the  various  processes  of 
forming  differenllv  fashioned  utensils,  are  fully  described." 

BIOGRAPHY  of  BRITISH  STATESMEN;   containing  the 
Lives  of   Sir   Thomas   More,  by  Sir   James   Mackintosh; 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  Archbishop  Cranmer,  and  Lord  Burleigh. 
"  A  very  deliiihtful  volume,  and  on  a  subject  likely  to  increase  in  interest 

as  it  proceeds.  *  *  *  We  cordially  commend  the  work  both  for  its  design  and 

execution." — London  Lit.  Gazette. 

The  history  of  SPAIN  and  PORTUGAL     In  5  vols. 

"  A  general  History  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Peninsula,  is  a  great  de- 
sideratum in  our  language,  and  we  are  glad  to  see  it  begun  under  such  favorable 
auspices.  We  have  seldom  tnet  with  a  narrative  which  fixes  attention  more 
steadily,  and  bears  the  reader's  mind  along  more  pleasantly." 

"In  the  volumes  before  us,  there  is  unquestionable  evidence  of  capacity  for 
the  task,  and  research  in  the  execution."— (7.  .S.  Journal. 

"  Of  course  this  work  can  be  but  an  abridgment ;  bft  we  know  not  where  so 
much  ability  has  been  shown  in  condensation.  It  is  unequalled,  and  likely 
long  to  remain  so.  *  *  We  were  convinced,  on  the  publication  of  the  first  vol- 
ume, that  it  was  no  common  compilation,  manufactured  to  order;  we  were  pre- 
pared to  announce  it  as  a  very  valuable  addition  t«  our  literature.  ***  Our 
last  words  must  be,  heartily  to  recommend  it  to  our  readers." — ^thenwum. 

HISTORY  of  SWITZERLAND. 

•'Like  the  preceding  historical  numbers  of  tliis  valuable  publication,  it 
abounds  with  interesting  details,  illustrative  of  the  habits,  character,  and  polit- 
ical complexion  of  the  people  and  country  it  describes  ;  and  affords,  in  the  small 
space  of  one  volume,  a  digest  of  all  the  important  facts  which,  in  more  elaborate 
histories,  occupy  five  times  the  space." — Evening  Post.  \ 


FRENCH  AND  SPANISH. 


BY  A.  BOOLVR. 


A  COLLECTION  of  C0LL0QUL\L  PHRASES  on  every 
Topic  necessary  lo  maintain  Conversation,  arrang-od  under  differ- 
ent heads,  with  numerous  remarks  on  the  peculiar  pronunciation 
and  use  of  various  words — the  whole  so  disposed  as  considerably 
to  facilitate  the  acquisition  of  a  correct  pronunciation  of  the 
French.     By  A.  Bolmar.     One  vol.  18mo. 

A  SELECTION  of  ONE  HUNDRED  PERRIN'S  FABLES, 
accompanied  by  a  Key,  containino^  the  text,  a  literal  and  free 
translation,  arrang'od  in  such  a  manner  as  to  point  out  the  differ- 
ence between  the  PVench  and  the  English  idiom,  also  a  figured 
pronunciation  of  the  French,  according  to  the  best  French  works 
extant  on  the  subject ;  the  whole  preceded  by  a  short  treatise  on 
the  sounds  of  the  French  language,  compared  with  those  of  the 
English. 

Les  AVENTURES  de  TELEMAQUE  par  FENELON,  ac- 

companied  by  a  Key  to  the  first  eight  books  ;  containing  like  the 
Fables — the  Text — a  Literal — and  Free  Translation  ;  intended  as 
a  Sequel  to  the  Fables. 

The  expression  'figured  pronunciation,'  is  above  employed  to  express  that  the 
words  in  the  Key  to  the  French  fables  are  spelt  and  divided  as  tliey  are  pronounced. 
It  is  what  Walker  has  done  in  his  Critical  Pronouncing  Dictionary  ;  for  instance, 
he  indicates  the  pronunciation  of  the  word  enough,  by  dividing  and  spelling  it  thus, 
e-nuf.  In  the  same  manner  I  indicate  the  pronunciation  of  the  word  comptaient 
thus,konU).  jis  the  understanding  of  the  figured  pronunciation  0/ Walker  re- 
quires the  student  to  be  acquainted  with  the  primitive  sounds  of  the  English  vowels, 
he  must  likewise,  before  he  can  understand  the  figured  pronunciation  of  the  French, 
make  himself  acquainted  with  the  20  primitive  sounds  of  the  French  vowels.  This 
any  intelligent  person  can  get  from  a  native,  or  from  anybody  who  reads  French 
well,  in  a  few  hours. 

A  COMPLETE  TREATISE  on  the  GENDERS  of  FRENCH 
NOUNS ;  in  a  small  pamphlet  of  fourteen  pages. 

This  little  work,  which  is  the  most  complete  of  the  kind,  is  the 
fruit  of  great  labor,  and  will  prove  of  immense  service  to  every 
learner. 

ALL  THE  FRENCH  VERBS,  both  REGULAR  and  IR- 
REGULAR, in  a  small  volume. 

The  verbs  Ure  to  be,  avoir  to  have,  parler  to  speak.^nir  to  finish,  recevoir 
to  receive,  vevdre  to  sell,  se  lever  lo  rise,  se  bien  porter  lo  be  well,  s'en  aller 
to  go  away,  are  here  all  conjugated  through — affirmatively — negatively — 
interrogatively — and  negatively  and  interrogatively — an  arrangement  which 
will  greatly  facilitate  the  sciiolar  in  his  learning  the  French  verbs,  and 
which  will  save  the  master  the  trouble  of  explaining  over  and  over  again 
what  may  be  much  more  easily  learned  from  books,  ihiis  leaving  him  more 
time  to  give  his  pupil,  during  the  lesson,  that  instruction  which  cannot  be 
found  in  books,  but  which  must  be  learned  from  a  master. 


NEUMAN'S  SPANISH  and  ENGLISH  DICTIONARY. 

New  Edition,  in  one  vol.  16mo. 


FAMILY  C  VBINET  ATLz\S. 


The  Fx\xMILY  CABINET  ATLAS,  constructed  vwn  an  ori- 
GiN.VL  PLAN :  Bein^  a  Conipaiiion  to  the  EncyclopaDdia  Ameri- 
cana, Cabinet  Cyclopiedia,  Family  Library,  Cabinet  Library,  &c. 

Phi.*  Atlas  comprises,  iu  a  volume  of  tiir  Fumily  Library  gi/.o,  nearly  JOOMaps 
anil  Tables,  wliich  presoiit  eijiial  to  Fifiij  Thousand  JVamcs  of  Places ;  a  body 
of  lurdritiatioii  liireo  limes  us  cAlcnsivc  as  that  supplied  by  llio  generality  of 
Quarto  Atlases. 

Opinions  of  the  Public  Journals. 

"Tliip  beautiful  and  mos*.  useful  little  volume,"  says  the  Literary  Gazette, 
"  is  a  p.;rfi'.;t  jucturc  of  clejjaiire,  c«)iitairiini;  a  vast  sam  of  peograpliical  infor- 
mation. A  iiKire  in^tnirtive  little  present,  or  a  »\\\  better  calculated  to  bfi  lonjr 
preserved  aulcfti-'u  referred  to,  could  not  be  olfored  to  favored  youtlj  of  either 
sex.  Its  I'hi  apiiess.  we  mupt  add.  is  another  recr.niiuondation  ;  for,  although 
this  I'lesiant  publication  contains  IW)  beautiful  engravings,  it  is  issued  at  a  price 
that  ran  b.-  nooli.-iacle  to  its  being  procnr.-.l  bvevery  parent  and  friend  to  youth." 

"  This  Atlas  far  surpasses  any  thing  of  the  kind  which  we  have  seen"  and  is 
mad.'  to  sun  the  popilar  libraries  which  Dr.  Laidiicr  and  Mr.  Murray  are  now 
sending  into  every  family  in  the  empire."— .Vw/i////y  Rcmctc. 

"  its  Very  ingenious  mtlhod  of  urranaemfnl  secures  to  the  geographical  stu- 
dent the  information  for  which  hilhert«)  Jie  has  boeu  obliged  to  resort  to  works 
of  the  larjjest  dimensions." — Jfthentrnm. 

"This  mininiure  and  beautiful  Atlas  is  likely  to  supersede,  for  general  piir- 
lioses,  maps  of  a  ajore  expensive  and  elaborate  character.  It  appears  to  us  to 
answer  the  double  purjM(se  of  exercisiuj;  the  attention,  while  it  imprinlu  all  that 
is  iinp'irtant  in  Gnn^.raphy  on  the  memory."— ^</tf5. 

"  The  Workmanship  is  among  the  best  of  the  kind  we  have  ever  witnessed."— 
Examiner.  ' 

'■  It  contains  all  the  information  to  be  derived  from  the  most  expensive  and 
unwielfty  Atlas."— 3ur/;  C'ourant. 

HISTORY  OF  THE   REVOLUTION   IN   ENGLAND,   IN 

1G88:  comprising  a  View  of  the  Reign  of  James  IL,  from  his 
accession,  to  the  Enterprise  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  By  the 
late  Right  Hon.  Sir  James  Mackintosh.  And  completed  to 
the  Settlement  of  the  Crown,  by  the  Editor.  To  which  is  pre- 
fixed, a  Notice  of  the  Life,  Writings,  and  Speeches  of  Sir 
James  Mackintosh.     In  1  vol.  8vo. 

"We  are  at  length  gratified  by  the  appearance  of  this  long-looked  for  work 
from  the  pen  of*SJr  James  Mackintosh.  Highly  gifted  by  nature,  deeply  read, 
and  singularly  accomplished,  the  view  of  one  of  the  most  memorable  epochs  in 
English  history  could  not  have  been  undertaken  by  any  man  of  a  capacity  to  do 
it  justice  in  every  respect,  superior  to  this  eminent  individual."— Lit.  Gazette. 

"  In  every  page  we  perceive  the  anxiety  of  the  historian  to  hold  the  ba- 
lance of  justice  with  unlahering  hand,  and  to  watch  its  slightest  vibrations." 
— Athen<Eiiin. 

"The  Sequel  is  highly  honourable  to  the  industry  and  talents  of  its  author; 
and  the  Prefatory  Memoir  is  very  well  written.  Altogether,  the  volume 
possesses  a  sterling  character,  too  rare  at  this  period  of  evanescent  publica- 
tions."— Lit.  Gazette. 

LIFE  OF  THE  REV.  GEORGE  CRABBE,  LL.  B.,  with  his 
Letters  and  Journals,  together  with  his  Posthumous  Poems. 
Edited  by  his  Son.     In  2  neat  volumes. 


EDUCATION. 


A  TREATISE  ON  ASTRONOxMY.  By  Sir  John  F.  W.  Her- 
SCHEL.     In  1  vol.  12mo. 

An  elementary  TREATISE  on  ALGEBRA,  Theoretical 
and  Practical ;   with  attempts  to  simplify  some  of  the  more 
difficult  parts  of  the  science,  particularly  the  demonstration  of 
the  Binomial  Theorem,  in  its  most  general  form  ;  the  Solution 
of  Equations  of  the  higher  orders ;  the  Summation  of  Infinite 
Series,  &c.     By  J.  R.  Young.     First  American   edition,   with 
Additions  and  Improvements,  hy  Samuel  Ward,  Jun.     8vo. 
"A  now'and  ingoiiions  peneral  niethoil  of  solvina  Equations  has  been  rccontly 
discovered  by  Mt.ssrs.  H.  Atkin.-on,  Holdred,  and  Unrm-r,  iiidcpoiidnntly  of  each 
other.     For  the  best  practical  view  of  this  new  nietiiod  and  its  applications. 
consHlt  the  Elenieiitary  Treatise  on  Algebra,  by  Mr.  J.  R.  Yonue.  a  work  which 
deserves  our  cordial  recommendation." — Dr.  Oregonjs  edition  cf  Hutton's  Mathe- 
matics. 

"  For  the  summation  of  Infinite  Series  the  author  pives  a  new  and  ingenious 
method,  which  is  very  easy  and  extensive  in  its  application." — J^ewcaatle  Mag. 

By  the  same  AutUor. 
EIJ^MENTS  OF  GEOMETRY;  containing  a  new  and  universal 
Treatise  on  the  Doctrine  of  Proportions,  together  with  Notes, 
in  which  are  pointed  out  and  corrected  several  important  errors 
that  have  hitherto  remained  unnoticed  in  the  writings  of  Ge- 
ometers. Also,  an  E.vamination  of  the  various  Thcoi  ies  of  Paral- 
lel Lines  that  liave  been  proposed  by  Legendre,  Bcrtrund,  Ivory, 
Leslie,  and  others. 

"  His  observations  on  the  tlienry  of  paralhl  lines,  the  labnr  he  has  bestowed 
on  the  doctrines  of  proportion,  as  well  as  his  corrections  of  many  errors  of  jire- 
ceding  Geometers,  and  snpplyi(i>.'  their  defects,  together  with  his  minute  attention 
to  accuracy  throughout,  may  be  justly  C'lnsidered  as  rendering  his  performance 
valuable,  especially  to  the  learner." — P/iilo.<ojihical  Magaiine. 

"  We  have  never  seen  a  work  so  free  from  pretension  and  of  such  preat  merit. 
Various  fallacies  latent  in  the  reasoning  of  some  celebrated  mathematicians, 
bothof  anci.Mit  and  modern  date,  are  pointed  out  and  discussed  in  a  tone  of  calm 
moderation,  which  we  nrgret  to  say  is  not  always  employed  in  the  scientific 
worUI." — Moafldy  Magazine. 

"This  is  a  work  of  valuable  information,  the  conception  of  a  most  enlightened 
mind,  and  executed  with  a  simplicity  which  cannot  but  carry  the  important  truth 
it  speaks  of  home  to  the  conviction  of  every  unilerstanding." — ll'eekly  Times. 

The  ELEMENTS  of  ANALYTICAL  GEOMETRY;  compre- 
hending the  Doctrine  of  the  Conic  Section-s  and  the  General 
Theory  of  Curves  and  Surfaces  of  the  second  order,  with  a 
variety  of  local  Problems  on  Lines  and  Surfices.  Intended  for 
the  use  of  Mathematical  Students  in  Schools  and  Universities. 

"  If  works  like  the  present  be  introduced  generally  into  our  schools  and  co|. 
leges,  the  continent  will  not  long  boast  of  its  immense  superiority  over  the 
country  of  Newton,  in  every  branch  of  modern  analytical  science." — .Atlas. 

ELEMENTS  of  PLANE  and  SPHERICAL  TRIGONOMF^ 
TRY,  comprehending  the  Theory  of  Navigation  and  of  Nautical 
Astronomy. 

ELEMENTS  of  MECHANICS,  comprehending  Statics  and 
Dynamics. 


New  "WorkS)  publisliccl  by  Careys  lica,  &  Blaucliard* 


BRIDGEWATER  TREATISES. 


This  series  of  Treatises  is  published  under  the  following  circum- 
stances:— 

The  Right  Honorable  and  Rev.  Francis  Henry,  Earl  of  Bridge- 
water,  died  in  the  month  of  February,  18iI5;  he  directed  certain  trus- 
tees therein  named,  to  invest  in  the  public  funds,  the  sum  of  eight 
thousand  pounds  sterling;  this  sum,  with  the  accruing  dividends 
thereon,  to  be  held  at  Uie  disjx^sal  of  the  President,  for  the  time  being, 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  liondon,  to  be  paid  to  the  person  or  persons 
nominated  by  him.  Tiie  Testator  farther  directed,  that  the  person  or 
jiersons  selected  by  the  said  President,  sliould  be  ajjjwintcd  to  write, 
f)rint  and  publish  one  thousand  copies  of  a  worlc,  on  the  Power,  Wis- 
dom, and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested  in  the  Creation;  illustra- 
ting such  work,  by  all  reasonable  arguments,  as,  for  instance,  the  va- 
riety and  formation  of  God's  creatures  in  the  Animal,  Vegetable,  and 
Mineral  Kingdoms ;  the  erteet  of  digestion,  and,  thereby,  of  conver- 
sion ;  the  construction  of  the  hand  of  man,  and  an  infinite  variety  of 
other  arguments  ;  as  also  by  discoveries,  ancient  and  modern,  in  arts, 
sciences,  and  tiie  whole  extent  of  literature. 

He  desired,  moreover,  that  the  profits  arising  from  the  sale  of  the 
works  so  published,  should  be  pj^id  to  the  authors  of  the  works. 

The  late  President  of  the  Royal  Society,  Daviks  Gilbkrt,  Esq.  re- 
quested the  assistance  of  his  (4race,  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  of  the  Bishop  of  liondon,  in  determining  upon  the  best  mode  of 
carrying  into  efTi'ct,  the  intentions  of  the  'I'estator.  Acting  with  their 
advice,  and  with  the  concurrence  of  a  nobleman  inmiediately  connect- 
ed with  the  deceased,  Mr.  Davies  Gilbert  api)ointed  the  following  eight 
gentlemen  to  write  separate  Treatises  in  the  different  branches  of  the 
subjects  here  stated: — 

I.  The  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Moral  and  Intellec- 
tual Constitution  of  Man,  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Chalmers,  D.  D.,  Pro- 
fessor  of  Divinity  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

n.  Tlie  adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Physical  Condition 
of  Man,  by  John  Kidd,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  Regius  Professor  of  Medicine 
in  the  University  of  Oxford. 

in.  Astronomy  and  General  Physics,  considered  with  reference  to 
Natural  Theology,  by  the  Rev.  Wm.  WhewcU,  M.  A.,  F.  R.S.,  Fel- 
low  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 

IV.  The  hand  :  its  mechanism  and  vital  endowments  as  evincbg 
design,  by  Sir  Charles  Bell,  K.  H.,  F.  R.  S. 

V.  Animal  and  Vegetable  Pliysiulogy,  by  Peter  Mark  Roget,  M.  D., 
Fellow  of  and  Secretary  to  the  Royal  Society. 

VI.  Geology  and  Mineralogy,  by  the  Rev.  Wm.  Buckland,  D.  D., 
F.  R.  S.,  Canon  of  Christ  Church,  and  Professor  of  Geology  in  the 
University  of  Oxford. 

VII.  The  History,  Habits,  and  Instincts  of  Animals,  by  the  Rev. 
Wm.  Kirby,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  S. 


New  Works,  puMislied  1>y  Carey,  I^ca,  &>  Blanchard* 


BRIDGEWATEa  TREATISES. 


VIII.  Chemistry,  Meteorology,  and  the  Function  of  Digestion,  by 
Wm.  Prout,  M.D.,F.R.S. 

THE  FOLLOWING  ARE  PUBLISHED. 

ASTRONOMY  AND  GENERAL  PHYSICS,  considered  with 
reference  to  Natural  Theoloo^y.  By  the  Rev.  William  Whe- 
WELL,  M.  A.,  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge ;  being  Part  III.  of  the  Bridgewater  Treatises  on  the 
Power,  Wisdom,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested  in  the 
Creation.     In  one  vol.  I2mo. 

"  It  is  a  work  of  profound  investiijation,  deep  research,  distinguished  alike 
for  the  calm  Christian  spirit  which  brcatiies  throughout,  and  the  sound,  irre- 
sistible argumentation  which  is  stamped  on  every  page." — Daily  Intelli- 
gencer, 

"  Let  works  like  that  before  us  be  widely  disseminated,  and  the  bold,  active, 
and  ingenious  enemies  of  religion  be  mot  by  lliose,  equally  sagacious,  alert  and 
resolute  and  the  most  timid  of  the  many  who  depend  upon  the  few,  need  not 
fear  the  host  tliat  comes  with  subtle  steps  to  'steal  their  faith  away.'  " — JV.  Y. 
American. 

"  That  the  devoted  spirit  of  the  work  is  most  exemplary,  that  we  have  here 
and  there  found,  or  fancied,  room  for  cavil,  only  pt^adventure  because  we  have 
been  unable  to  follow  the  author  through  the  prodigious  range  of  his  philo- 
sophical survey — and  in  a  word,  that  the  work  biifore  us  would  have  made  the 
reputation  of  any  other  man,  and  may  well  maintain  even  that  of  I'rofessor 
Whv.v/cW.^—Metrapolitan. 

"  He  has  succeeded  admirably  in  laying  a  broad  foundation,  in  the  light  of 
nature,  for  the  reci'ptinn  of  the  more  glorious  truths  of  revelation  ;  and  has 
produced  a  work  well  calculated  to  dissipate  the  delusions  of  scepticism  and 
intidelity,  and  to  confirm  the  believer  in  his  faith." — Charleston  Courier. 

"The  known  talents,  and  high  reputation  of  the  author,  gave  an  earnest  of 
excellence,  and  nobly  has  Mr.  Whewell  redeemed  the  pledge. — In  conclusion, 
'vehave  no  hesitation  in  saying,  that  the  present  is  one  of  the  best  works  of 
lis  kind,  and  admirably  adaptt*d  to  the  end  proposed;  as  such,  we  cordially 
recommend  it  to  our  readers." — Loudon  Lit.  Qazette. 

"  It  is  a  work  of  Jiigh  cliaracter."— jBoafoji  Recorder. 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  ADAPTATION  OF  EXTERNAL 
NATURE  TO  THE  PHYSICAL  CONDITION  OF  MAN, 

principally  with  refereiice  to  tlie  supply  of  his  wants,  and  the 
exercise  of  his  intollfctual  ficultios.  By  John  Kidd,  M.  D., 
F.  R.  S.,  Regius  Professor  of  Medicine  in  the  University  of 
Oxford ;  being  Part  II.  of  tlie  Bridgewater  Treatises  on  the 
Power,  Wisdom,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested  in  the 
Creation.    In  one  vol.  I2mo. 

"  It  is  ably  written,  and  replote  both  with  interest  and  instruction.  The 
diffusion  of  such  works  cannot  fail  to  be  attended  with  the  happiest  effects  in 
justifying  '  the  ways  of  God  to  man,'  and  illustrating  the  wisdom  and  good- 
ness of  the  Creator  by  arguments  which  appeal  irrcsistably  both  to  the  reason 
and  the  feelings.  Few  can  understand  alwtract  reasoning,  and  still  fewer  rel- 
ish it,  or  will  listen  to  it :  but  in  this  work  tliR  purest  morality  anil  the  kindli- 
est feelings  are  inculcated  through  the  medium  of  agreeable  and  useful  infor- 
mation."— Bait.  Qaz. 

"  It  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  individual  who  fe«Is  disposed  to  '  vindi- 
cate the  ways  of  God  to  man.' "— JV.  Y.  Com.  Adv. 


New  Works,  published  by  Carey,  Lea,  &  Blanchard. 


BRIDGEWATER   TREATISES. 

CHEMISTRY,  MINERALOGY,  AND  THE  FUNCTIONS 
OF  DIGESTION,  considered  with  reference  to  Natural  The- 
ology, by  William  Prout,  M.  D.  F.  R.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  being  part  eight  of -the  Bridgewater 
Treatises  on  tiie  Power,  Wisdom,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as 
manifested  in  the  Creation.     In  1  vol.  12mo. 
"  For  depth  of  invesiigation,  extent  of  research  and  cogency  of  reasoning, 
this  work  w  ill  not  suHL-r  in  cojnparison  with  any  other  of  this  admirable 
series.     The  deductions  from  the  premises  are  strong  and  conclusive,  and 
bear  the  impress  of  a  calm,  philosophic,  and  truly  Christian  spirit.    The 
valuable  scioutilic  knowledge  that  may  be  derived  from  the  Bridgewater 
Treatises,  independent  of  their  grand  design — the  illustration  of  the  power, 
wisdom,  and  goodness  of  God,  as  manilested  in  the  creation — should  secure 
them  a  wide  circulation." — Bait.  (Jaztlte. 

ON  THE  ADAPTATION  OF  EXTERNAL  NATURE  TO 
THE  MORAL  AND  INTELLECTUAL  CONSTITUTION 
OF  MAN.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Chalmers^  D.  D.  ;  being 
Part  I.  of  the  Bridgewater  Treatises  on  the  Power,  Wisdom, 
and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifeated  in  Creation.  In  1  vol.  12mo. 

"The  volumes  before  us  are  every  way  worthy  of  their  subject.  It 
would  seem  almost  sujierrrogalory  to  fiass  any  judgmerri  on  the  style  of  a 
writer  so  celebrated  as  Dr.  Chalmers.  He  is  well  known  as  a  logician  not 
to  be  baffled  by  any  difficulties ;  as  one  who  lx>ldly  grapples  with  his  theme, 
and  brings  every  energy  of  his  clear  and  nervous  intellect  into  the  field. 
No  sophistry  escapes  his  eagle  vision — no  argimient  that  could  either 
enforce  or  illustrate  his  subject  is  left  untouched.  Our  literature  owes  a 
deepdebtof  gratitude  to  the  author  of  tijese  admirable  volumes." — Lit.  Gaz. 

THE  HAND:  ITS  MECHANISM  AND  VITAL  ENDOW- 
MEx\TS,  AS  EVINCING  DESIGN.  By  Sir  Charles 
Bell,  K.  G.  H.  ;  being  Part  IV.  of  the  Bridgewater  Treatises 
on  the  Power,  Wisdom,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested 
in  tlie  Creation.     In  one  vol.  12mo. 

"In  the  present  treatise  it  is  a  matter  of  the  warmest  satisfaction  to  find 
an  anatomist  of  Sir  Charles  Bell's  great  eminence,  professing  his  contempt 
for  the  late  fashionable  doctrines  of  materialism  held  by  so  many  anato- 
mists, and  now  coming  forward  to  present  the  fruits  of  his  wide  researches 
and  great  ability  in  a  treatise  so  full  of  curious  and  interesting  matter, 
expressly  intentled  to  prove,  by  the  examination  of  one  particular  point, 
that  design  which  is  imprest  on  all  parts  of  various  animals  which  in  some 
degree  answer  the  purpose  of  the  Hand ;  and  has  shown  that  the  hand  is 
not  the  source  of  contrivance,  nor  consequently  of  man's  superiority,  as 
some  materialists  have  maintained. 

"To  this  he  has  added  some  very  valuable  remarks,  showing  the  uses  of 
Pain,  and  he  has  illustrated  the  work  with  a  variety  of  the  most  admirable 
and  interesting  wood  cuts." — British  Magazine. 

ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY,  considered  with 
reference  to  Natural  Theology.  By  Peter  Mark  Roget,  M.  D.  Being 
Treatise  five  of  the  Bridgewater  Series  :  illustrated  with  numerous 

cuts. 


Neiv  "Works,  pul»lis3ied  l>y  Carey,  l^ea,  &  Bloncliard* 


THE   PREMIUM, 

A  PRESENT  FOR  ALL  SEASONS : 

Consisting  of  elegant  selections  from  British  and  American 
writers  of  the  19th  century.  In  one  small  neat  volume,  ele- 
gantly bound  in  morocco ;  with  engravings,  by  Ellis,  from  de- 
signs by  Westall  and  Richter. 

This  work  particularly  commends  itself  to  school  teachers,  pa- 
rents, and  others,  who  may  be  in  searcli  of  a  volume  to  pre- 
sent to  either  sex. 

"  A  delightful  little  bouquet  of  '  elegant  extracts,'  from  the  best  writers  of 
prose  and  poetry  in  Great  Britain  and  America.  The  premiums  would  be  a 
pretty  present  for  youug  ladies,  or  students,  emulous  to  be  noticed  or  reward- 
ed."— Sentinel. 

"  It  is  a  collection,  or  rather  let  us  say,  a  srlection  of  pieces  in  prose  and 
verse,  that  have  real  merit,  witli  reference  both  to  style  and  sentiment.  They 
are  choice,  and  will  ho  useful  to  improve  the  taste  and  strengthen  the  morals. 
The  author  has  done  a  goo<l  work,  and  those  who  wish  to  give  the  most  de- 
serving a  beautiful  and  a  useful  '  premium,'  will  find  the  work  to  which  we 
refer  altogether  suitable." — U.  S.  Gazette, 

"Carey,  Lea  <fe  RIanchard  have  given  us  a  choice  selection  of  gems,  from 
the  best  popular  writers  of  the  day,  under  the  above  title.  It  contains  arti- 
cles from  the  jKius  of  Croley,  Wilson,  Byron,  Mary  Howitt,  Mrs.  Ilemans, 
Moore,  Hood,  Dr.  Bird,  Campbell,  Manning,  Irving,  Webster,  Sprague,  Brain- 
ing, Percival,  &c.  The  volume  is  a  pleasant  one,  and  the  selections  such  as 
their  respective  authors  have  no  need  to  be  ashamed  of." — JV.  Y.  Com.  Adver- 
tiser. 

"  This  is  a  neat  volume  composed  of  extracts  from  the  celebrated  writers  of 
the  present  century.  The  selections  are  admirably  made,  and  the  work  is 
got  up  with  unusual  elegance.  The  binding  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  the 
skill  which  has  been  attained  in  this  important  department  of  book-making. 
The  volume  is  one  of  rare  beauty,  and  constitutes  a  cheap,  elegant,  and  ap- 
propriate present." — Daily  Intelligencer. 

"  A  very  neat  and  instructive  present  for  youth  at  all  seasons."— JVai.  Oat. 


A  TREATISE    ON    ASTRONOMY. 

BY  SIR  JOHN  F.  W.  HERSCHEL,  F.  R.  S.  &C. 

In  1  vol.  12mo. 

"The  present  treatise  is  in  no  wise  inferior  to  its  predecessor:  it  is  charac- 
terized by  the  same  agreeable  and  elegant  style,  the  same  facility  of  illustra- 
tion— added  to  which  it  possesses  unrivalled  precision  and  accuracy  of  de- 
monstration. Avoiding,  therefore,  the  abstruse  niceties  and  the  transcendental 
mathematics  of  the  subject,  the  author  has  nevertheless  produced  a  volume 
calculated,  we  are  fully  persuaded,  to  impress  upon  his  readers  the  magnitude 
and  importance  of  the  science,  and  to  initiate  tbem  in  no  mean  degree  into 
ita  mysteries."— Z.i«.  Gazette. 


OF  KING  CHARLES  THE  FIRST. 
By  LuoY  AiKiN.    In  Two  Volumes,  8vo. 


EDUCATION. 

A  Nevy  Abridgement  of  AINSWORTH'S  DICTIONARY, 
English  and  I^tin,  for  the  use  of  Grammar  Schools.  By 
John  Dymock,  LL.  D.,  with  Notes,  by  Charles  Anthon. 
1  vol.  ISmo. 

In  this  edition  are  introduced  several  alterations  and  improvemenls,  for  tlie 
8i)ecial  purpose  of  facilitating  the  labor  and  increasing  the  knowledge  of  the 
young  schulur. 

GREEK  AND  ENGLISH  LEXICON.  By  D.  Donnegan.  Abridged 
for  the  use  of  Schools.  In  1  vol.  royal  18mo.,  containing  above 
800  pages. 

This  work  is  printed  on  a  handsome  distinct  type,  and  contains  as  much 
matter  as  many  of  the  larger  lexicons;  billowing  to  the  form  in  which  it  is 
printed,  it  is  sold  at  such  price  as  to  be  within  the  reach  of  all  students.  It 
offers  more  advantajjes  to  the  young  student  than  any  other  lexicon  now  in  use. 
The  vocabulary  is  more  extensive  and  complete— comprising  not  only  wnkds 
fiiund  in  the  classics,  but  also  such  as  are  found  in  the  writings  of  Hippxicrates 
and  the  Greek  physicians.  The  meanings  attached  to  words  by  the  several 
writers  are  also  given. 

Words  are  given  in  alphabetical  order  in  every  poetical  and  dialectic  variety. 

The  conjugation  of  verbs  and  flection  of  nouns  are  more  complete  than  in 
other  lexicons;— the  meanings  of  words  fuller  and  more  correct— there  being 
first  a  primary  and  then  a  secondary  meaning,  each  distinguished  from  the 
metaphorical  and  idiomatical.  Phrases  are  also  given  when  they  note  any 
peculiarity  in  signilication.  The  etymology  of  words  is  only  omitted  where  it  is 
confii.<!ed  or  disputed.  There  is  nothing  left  out  which  the  young  student  would 
find  necessary  in  studying  the  classics,  and  which  would  enable  him  to  under- 
stand the  true  meaning  of  a  word.  In  short,  in  this  work  the  essential  advan- 
tairesof  a  good  Dictionary  are  combined  with  those  of  a  good  Grammar— advan- 
tages not  found  in  any  Greek  and  English  lexicon  now  used. 

ELEMENTS  of  MECHANICS.  By  James  Renwick,  Esq., 
Professor  of  Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy,  Columbia 
College,  N.  Y.     In  8vo.  with  numerous  Engravings. 

"We  think  this  decidedly  the  best  treatise  on  Mechanics,  which  has  is.<;ued 
from  the  American  press,  that  we  have  seen  ;  one,  too,  that  is  alike  creditable  to 
the  writer,  and  to  the  slate  of  science  in  this  country. "—jSmcrjcan  Q^uarterly  Rev. 

ELEMENTS  of  OPTICS.  By  David  Brewster.  First  Amer- 
ican edition,  with  Notes  and  Additions,  by  A.  D.  Bache,  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  Philosophy  and  Chemistry  in  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania.     18mo. 

"The  author  has  given  proof  of  his  well-known  industry,  and  extensive  ac- 
quaintance with  the  results  of  science  in  every  part  of  Europe." — Monthly  Mag. 

"  The  subject  is,  as  might  be  expected,  ably  treated,  and  clearly  illustrated."— 
U.  S.  Jour. 

A  TREATISE  on  HYDROSTATICS  and  PNEUMATICS. 
By  the  Rev.  Dionysius  Lardner,  LL.  D.  F.  R.  S.  &.c.  First 
American  from  the  first  London  edition,  with  Notes  by  Ben- 
jamin F.  JosuN,  M.  D.,  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  Union 
College. 

"  It  fully  sustains  the  favorable  opinion  we  have  already  expressed  as  to  this 
valuable  compendium  of  modern  science." — Lit.  Oaz. 

Dr.  Lardner  has  made  a  good  use  of  his  acquaintance  with  the  familiar  facts 
which  illustrate  the  principles  of  science." — Monthly  Mag. 

"  It  is  written  with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  in  a  popular  style, 
abounding  in  practical  illustrations  of  the  abstruse  operations  of  these  im- 
portant sciences." — U.  S.  Jour. 


EDUCATION. 


LESSONS  ON  THINGS,  intended  to  improve  Children  in  the 
Practice  of  Observation,  Reflection,  and  Description,  on  the  Sys- 
tem of  Pestalozzi,  edited  by  John  Frost,  A.  M. 

The  publishers  request  the  attention  of  Teachers,  School  Com- 
mittees, and  all  who  are  dcsiror-s  of  improving  the  methods  of  in- 
struction, to  this  work,  which  is  on  a  plan  hitherto  unattempted 
by  any  school-book  in  this  country,  and  which  has  been  attended 
with  extraf)rdinary  success  in  England. 

The  following-  remarks  on  the  work  are  extracted  from  the 
"  Quarterly  Journal  of  Education." 

"  This  little  vnjiimp  is  a  '  corrected  and  re-corrpcted'  edition  of  lessons  actual- 
ly given  to  cliildren,  and,  tiierefore,  possesses  a  value  to  vvliich  no  book  made  in 
the  closet  can  lay  claim,  hoing  the  result  of  actual  experiment.  The  work  con- 
sists of  a  numbor  of  Irssons,  divided  into  five  series:  bewinning  with  subjects 
the  most  easy  and  elementary,  it  gradually  increas(!s  in  difficulty,  each  succes- 
sive step  being  adapted  to  the  mind  of  the  child  as  it  acquires  "fresh  stores  of 
knowledge. 

"  Every  part  of  these  lessons  is  interesting  to  the  child,  both  on  account  of  the 
active  operation  into  which  his  own  mind  is  necessarily  calleil  by  tho  »/inn»»er  in 
which  the  les.sons  are  given  ;  and  al.«o  by  the  attractive  nature  of  many  of  the 
wa^eria/s  which  form  the  subject  of  the  lessons.  In  the  first  and  most  elementa- 
ry series,  the  pupil  i.s  simphj  taiitr/il  to  make  a  right  use  of  his  organs  of  sense, 
and  to  exercise  his  judgment  so  far  only  as  relates  to  the  objects  about  him  ;  and 
accordingly  the  matter  brought  before  him  at  this  stage,  is  such  that  its  obvious 
properties  c;in  be  discovered  and  described  by  a  child  who  has  acquired  a  tolera- 
ble knowledge  of  his  mother  tongue." 

ELEMENTS  of  the  INTEGRAL  CALCULUS;  with  its 
Applications  to  Geometry,  and  to  the  Summation  of  Infinite 
Series,  &c.  Revised  and  corrected  by  Michael  O'Shan- 
NESSY,  A.  M.     1  vol.  8vo. 

"  The  volume  before  us  firms  the  third  of  an  analytical  course,  which  com- 
mences with  the  •  Elements  of  .Analytical  Geometry.'  More  elegant  text- 
books do  not  exist  in  the  English  langiiage.  and  we  trust  they  will  speedily  be 
adopted  in  our  Malhcmatical  Seininarits.  The  existence  of  such  auxiliaries 
will,  of  itself,  we  hope,  prove  an  inrlticement  to  the  cultivation  of  Analytical 
Science  ;  for,  to  the  want  of  such  elementary  works,  the  inditTerence  hitherto 
manifested  in  this  country  on  the  subject  is,  we  apprrheyd,  chiefly  to  be  as- 
cribed. Mr.  Young  has  brought  the  science  within  the  reach  of  every  intelli- 
gent student,  and,  in  so  doing,  has  contributed  to  the  advancement  of  mathe- 
matical learning  in  Great  Britain."— Pr«.s6ytcrion  Review,  January,  1832. 

ELEMENTS  of  the  DIFFERENTIAL  CALCULUS ;  com- 
prehending the  General  Theory  of  Curve  Surfaces,  and  of 
Curves  of  Double  Curvature.  Revised  and  corrected  by 
Michael  O'Shannessy,  A.  M.     1  vol.  8vo. 

'  The  whole  Elements  of  the  Differential  Calculus,  comprehending  all  that 
is  most  valuable  in  the  large  works  of  the  most  celebrated  Analysis,  are  con 
tained  in  otic  volume,  beautifully  printed  on  a  fine  paper,  and  neatly  l)ound 
in  cloth.  It  appears  to  be  in  every  respect  well  fitted  for  a  Class-Book.  and 
can  scarcely  fail  to  be  very  generally  adopted  " — Presbyterian  Review,  Sep 
tember,  1831. 


J 


New  Works,  published  by  Carey,  Lea,  &  Blanchard. 


THREE  YEARS  IN  THE  PACIFIC,  including  notices  of 
Brazil,  Chili,  Bolivia,  and  Peru.  lu  one  vol.  By  an  Offi- 
cer of  the  United  States'  Navy. 

"  The  work  embraces  copious  descriptions  of  the  countries  visited ;  graphic 
accounts  of  the  state  of  society ;  brief  notices  of  the  history,  state  of  the 
arts,  climate,  and  the  future  prosjwcts  of  those  interesting  parts  of  our  conti- 
nent; respecting  wliich  the  citizens  of  the  United  Stales  are  supposed  to 
care  much,  butlinow  so  little." 

"Full  of  novelty  and  valuable  details.  The  American  reader  will  greatly 
add  to  his  fund  of  idea.s  concerning  South  America  by  its  perusal." — Chronicle. 

"The  author's  graphic  abilities — the  pure  acquaintance  he  displays  with 
the  Spanish  language,  renders  his  book  at  once  pleasing  and  useful.  — Gaz. 

"  Such  contributions  to  our  stock  of  ideas  and  literature,  deserve  a  warmer 
welcome  and  wider  patronage  than  the  common-place  or  extravagant  fictions 
of  the  day." — JS'atiomd  Gazelle. 

"Much  new  and  valuable  information,  imbodied  in  excellent  language; 
there  cannot  be  a  moment's  doubt  of  its  iwpularily." — Jour,  of  Belles  LeUres. 

LETTERS  ON  THE  TINITED  STATES.  Ixjtters  to  a  Cen- 
tlctnnn  in  (;ermaiiy,Avritteii  after  a  trip  from  Philadelphia 
to  Niagara,  edited  by  Dr.  Frunci;*  Lieber,  in  one  vol.  8vo. 

"  TheminglinRof  anec<I<)te,  tlio  abrupt  lireaks,  pr-rsonal  narration,  illustrative 
comparisons,  ami  frnnera!  Ptyle  of  the  work,  t'ive  it  an  interest  that  will  ensure 
to  the  book  general  perusal— while  the  philosupliicnl  lone  which  occasionally 
pervades  its  pases  cannot  fail  of  comuRMiding  them  to  tlie  approval  of  ihe 
reflecting."— C7.  S.  Oazette. 

"  We  liave  read  this  work  with  great  satisfaction  and  interest.  It  abounds 
with  characteristic  anecdotes,  graphic  descriptions,  and  principles  which  do 
honour  to  the  head  and  h-art  of  the  author." — JVl/f.  Inifllifretirer. 

The  style  of  these  Letters  is,  in  general,  very  good  ;  sometimes  poetical  and 
eloquent. 

"Here  is  a  well  written  series  of  Letters,  by  a  learned  German,  who  has 
lived  long  enough  among  us.  it  api)ears.  to  examine  the  peculiarities  of  our 
government  and  habits,  with  the  impartial  eye  of  a  philosopher." — Baltimore 
paper. 

"  This  is  a  very  azreeable  book— rambling,  spri<:htly,  anccdotical,  and  withal, 
interspersed  with  much  useful  a.'ul  practical  iufbrmalion,  and  keen  and  accurate 
observation." — J^'euo  York  American. 

SKETCHES  OF  SOCl'STY  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND 
IRELAND.  By  C.  S.  Stewart,  M.  A.,  Chaplain  of  the 
United  States'  Navy,  author  of"  A  yi^it  to  the  South  Seas," 
^'  A  Residence  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,"  «&c.  In  two  vols. 
12mo. 

"  Some  of  his  sketches  are  beautiful  descriptions ;  others  are  finished  pictures. 
The  charm  of  these  volumes  consists  in  the  distinct  view  which  the  author 
gives  us  of  the  scenery,  the  country,  the  cities  and  towns,  the  aristocracy,  the 
churches, — in  one  word,  the  thousand  particulars,  which,  together,  constitute 
what  is  called  the  state  of  society."— ^fi/i^iows  Telegraph. 

"  We  have  seldom  perused  a  work  with  so  pleasant  an  interest.  The  contents 
are  various  and  racy,  epistolary  transcripts  of  the  author's  mind,  published  just 
as  written,  without  revisions,  and  with  all  the  gloss  and  freshness  of  first  and 
original  impressions  about  them.    The  work  is  full  of  living  pictures." 

"  His  observations  on  men  and  manners,  in  his  description  of  the  different 
scenes  to  which  his  pilgrimage  was  extended,  are  given  in  a  style  of  the  most 
flowing  and  attractive  kind."— JV.  Y.  Courier. 

THIRTY  YEARS'  CORRESPONDENCE,  between  John 
Jebb,  D.  D.  F.  R.  S.,  Bishop  of  Limerick,  Ardfert,  and 
Aghadoe ;  and  Alexander  Knox,  Esq.,  M.  R.  I.  A.  Edited 
by  the  Rev.  Charles  Forster,  B.  D.,  perpetual  curate  of  Ash 
next  Sandwich;  formerly,  domestic  Chaplain  to  Bishop 
Jebb.    In  tAVo  vols.  8vo. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


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THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


